Download PDF
Thromb Haemost 2002; 88(03): 389-401
DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1613228
Review Article
Schattauer GmbH

Platelet and Coagulation Defects Associated with HIV-1-Infection

Simon Karpatkin
1   New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
,
Michael Nardi
1   New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
,
David Green
1   New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Received 02 May 2002

Accepted 17 June 2002

Publication Date:
08 December 2017 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

 

 

  • References

  • 1 Morris L, Distenfeld A, Amorosi E, Karpatkin S. Autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura in homosexual men. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96: 714-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Savona S, Nardi MA, Karpatkin S. Thrombocytopenic purpura in narcotics addicts. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 737-41.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Ratnoff OD, Menitove JE, Aster RH, Lederman MM. Coincident classic hemophilia and “idiopathic” thrombocytopenic purpura in patients under treatment with concentrates of anti-hemophilic factor (factor VIII). N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 439-42.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Karpatkin S, Nardi M, Hymes KB. Immunologic thrombocytopenic purpura after heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 190-3.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hymes KB, Cheung T, Greene JB. et al. Kaposi’s sarcoma in homosexual men: A report of 8 cases. Lancet 1981; 02: 598-600.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Jokela J, Flynn T, Henry K. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura in a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive homosexual man. Am J Hematol 1987; 25: 341-3.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Leaf AN, Raphael B, Hochster H, Laubenstein LJ, Baez L, Karpatkin S. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 194-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Nair JMG, Bellevue R, Bertoni M. et al. TTP in patients with the AIDSrelated complex. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 209-12.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Gore I. Disseminated arteriolar and capillary platelet thrombosis: A morphological study of its histogenesis. Am J Pathol 1950; 26: 155-75.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Assada Y, Sumiyoshi A, Hayashi T, Suzumiya J. Kekatani. Thromb Res. 1985; 38: 469-79.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Bell WR, Chulay JD, Feinberg JE. Manifestations resembling thrombotic microangiopathy in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease in a cytomegalovirus prophylaxis trial (ACTG204). Medicine 1997; 76: 369-80.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Hymes KB, Karpatkin S. Human immunodeficiency virus infection and thrombotic microangiopathy. Sem Hematol 1997; 34: 117-25.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Thompson CE, Damon LE, Ries CA, Linker CA. Thrombotic microangiopathies in the 1980’s: Clinical features, response to treatment, and the impact of the human immunodeficiency virus epidemic. Blood 1992; 80: 1890-95.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Ucar A, Fernandez HF, Byrnes JJ, Lian ECY, Harrington WJ. Thrombotic microangiopathy and retroviral infections: A 13 year experience. Am J Hematol 1994; 45: 304-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Walsh C, Kriegel R, Lennette E, Karpatkin S. Thrombocytopenia in homosexual patients. Prognosis, response to therapy, and prevalence of antibody to the retrovirus associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985; 103: 542-5.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Murphy MF, Metcalfe P, Waters AH. Incidence and mechanism of neutropenia and thrombocytopenia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Brit J Haematol 1987; 66: 337-40.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Mientjes CHC, Van Ameijden EJC, Mulder JW, Van den Hoek JAR, Continho RA, Von dem Borne AE. Prevalence of thrombocytopenia in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected drug abusers and homosexuals. Br J Haematol 1992; 82: 615-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Landonio G, Gall M, Nosari A. et al. HIV-related severe thrombocytopenia in intravenous drug abusers: Prevalence, response to therapy in a medium term follow-up and pathogenetic evaluation. AIDS 1998; 04: 29-34.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Auch D, Budde U, Hammerstein U. et al. FcR-mediated clearance in thrombopenic and non-thrombopenic patients with hemophilia A and possible relation of thrombopenia to HIV seropositivity. Eur J Haematol 1987; 39: 440-6.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Ehmann WC, Rabkin CS, Eyster ME, Goedert JJ. Thrombocytopenia in HIV-infected and uninfected hemophiliacs. Am J Hematol 1997; 54: 296-300.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Holzman RS, Walsh CM, Karpatkin S. Risk for the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome among thrombocytopenic and non-thrombocytopenic homosexuals non-seropositive for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Ann Intern Med 1987; 106: 383-6.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Abrams DI, Kiprov DD, Goedert JJ. et al. Antibodies to human T lymphotropic virus type III and development of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in homosexual men presenting with immune thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 47-50.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Goldsweig HG, Grossman R, William D. Thrombocytopenia in homosexual men. Am J Hematol 1986; 21: 243-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Hymes KB, Greene JB, Karpatkin S. The effect of azidothymidine on HIV-related thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 516-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Swiss Group for Clinical Studies on AIDS. Zidovudine for the tretment of thrombocytopenia associated with HIV. A prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 718.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Arranz JACaso, Sanchez CMingo, Garcia JTena. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on thrombocytopenia in patients with HIV infection [letter]. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1239-40.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Bussel J, Haimi J. Isolated thrombocytopenia in patients infected with HIV: Treament with intravenous gammaglobulin. Am J Hematol 1988; 28: 79-84.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Oksenhendler E, Bierling P, Farcet J-P. et al. Response to therapy in 37 patients with HIV-related thrombocytopenic purpura. Br J Haematol 1987; 66: 491-5.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Pollak AN, Janinis J, Green D. Successful intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for human immunodeficiency virus-asociated thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1988; 148: 695-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Rarick MU, Montgomery T, Groshen S, Sullivan-Halley J, Jamin D, Mazumder A. et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-related thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 1991; 38: 261-6.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Scaradavou A, Woo B, Woloski BM, Cunningham-Rundles S, Ettinger LJ, Aledort LM. et al. Intravenous anti-D treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura: experience in 272 patients. Blood 1997; 89: 2689-700.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Karpatkin S, Nardi MA. On the mechanism of thrombocytopenia in hemophiliacs multiply transfused with AHF concentrates. J Lab Clin Med 1988; 111: 441-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Karpatkin S, Nardi MA. Autoimmune anti-HIV-1gp120 antibody with anti-idiotype-like activity in sera and immune complexes of HIV-1 related immunologic thrombocytopenia (HIV-1-ITP). J Clin Invest 1992; 89: 356-64.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Karpatkin S, Nardi MA, Hymes KB. Sequestration of anti-platelet GPIIIa antibody in Rheumatoid Factor-immune complexes of human immunodeficiency virus 1 thrombocytopenic patients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1995; 92: 2263-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Karpatkin S, Nardi MA, Lennette ET, Byrne B, Poiesz B. Anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody complexes on platelets of seropositive thrombocytopenic homosexuals and narcotic addicts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 9763-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Nardi M, Karpatkin S. Antiidiotype antibody against platelet anti-GPIIIa contributes to the regulation of thrombocytopenia in HIV-1-ITP patients. J Exper Med 2000; 191: 2093-100.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Nardi MA, Liu L-X, Karpatkin S. GPIIIa (49-66) is a major pathophysiologically-relevant antigenic determinant for anti-platelet GPIIIa of HIV-1-related immunologic thrombocytopenia (HIV-1-ITP). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1997; 94: 7589-94.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Walsh CM, Nardi MA, Karpatkin S. On the mechanism of thrombocytopenic purpura in sexually-active homosexual men. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 635-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Yu J-R, Lennette ET, Karpatkin S. Anti-F(ab’)2 antibodies in thrombocytopenic patients at risk for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 1756-61.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Najean Y, Rain J-D. The mechanism of thrombocytopenia in patients with HIV. J Lab Clin Med 1994; 123: 415.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Katsarou O, Terpos E, Patsouris E, Peristeris P, Viniou N, Kapsimali V. et al. Myelodysplastic features in patients with longterm HIV infection and haemophilia. Haemophilia 2001; 07: 47-52.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Young G, Loechelt BJ, Rakusan TA, Nichol JL, Luban NL. Thrombopoietin-levels in HIV-associated thrombocytopenia in children. J Pediatrics 1998; 133: 765-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Bel-Ali Z, Dufour V, Najean Y. Platelet kinetics in human immunodeficiency virus induced thrombocytopenia. Amer J Hematol 1987; 26: 229-304.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Van Wyk V, Kotze HF, Heyns AP. Kinetics of indium-111-labelled platelets in HIV-infected patients with and without associated thrombocytopaenia. Eur J Haematol 1999; 62: 332-5.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Siegel RS, Rae JL, Kessler CM. Immune thrombocytopenic purpura in HTLV-III men. Blood 1986; 68 (Suppl. 01) 134A.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Ballem P, Belzberg A, Devine D, Lyster D, Spruston B, Chambers H. et al. Kinetics studies of the mechanism of thrombocytopenia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1779-84.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Cole JL, Marzec UM, Gunthel CJ, Karpatkin S, Worford L, Sundell IB. et al. Ineffective platelet production in thrombocytopenic human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Blood 1998; 91: 3239-46.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Stella CC, Ganser A, Hoezler D. Defective in vitro growth of the hemopoietic progenitor cells in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 286.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Chelucci C, Federico M, Guerriero RGM, Casella I, Pelosi E. et al. Productive human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection of purified megakaryocytic progenitors/precursors and maturing megakaryocytes. Blood 1998; 91: 1225-34.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Zucker-Franklin D, Cao Y. Megakaryocytes of human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals express viral RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 5595.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Basch R, Kouri YH, Karpatkin S. Expression of CD4 by human megakaryocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1990; 87: 8085-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Kouri YH, Borkowsky W, Nardi M, Karpatkin S, Basch R. Human megakaryocytes have a CD4 molecule capable of binding human immunodeficiency virus-1. Blood 1993; 81: 2664-70.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Kowalska MA, Ratajczak J, Hoxie J, Brass LF, Gewirtz A, Poncz M. et al. Megakaryocyte precursors, megakaryocytes and platelets express the HIV co-receptor CXCR4 on their surface: determination of response to stromal-derived factor-1 by megakaryocytes and platelets. Br J Haematol 1999; 104: 220-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Riviere C, Subra F, Cohen-Solal K, Cordette-Lagarde V, Letestu R, Auclair C. et al. Phenotypic and functional evidence for the expression of CXCR4 receptor during megakaryocytopoiesis. Blood 1999; 93: 1511-23.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Sakaguchi M, Sato T, Groopman J. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of megakaryocytic cells. Blood 1991; 77: 481.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Bahner I, Kearns K, Couthino S, Leonard EH, Kohn DB. Infection of human marrow stroma by HIV-1 is both required and sufficient for HIV-1 induced hematopoietic suppression in vitro: demonstration by gene modification of primary human stroma. Blood 1997; 90: 1787-98.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Davis BR, Marx JC, Johnson CE. et al. Absent or rare HIV-1 infection of bone marrow stem/progenitor cells in vivo . J Virol 1991; 65: 1985.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Louache F, Henri A, Bettaieb A. et al. Role of human immunodeficiency virus replication in defective in vitro growth of hematopoietic progenitors. Blood 1992; 80: 2991.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Moses A, Nelson J, Bagby Jr GC. The influence of human immunodeficiency virus 1 on hematopoiesis. Blood 1998; 91: 1479-91.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Moses AV, Williams S, Heneveld ML. et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of bone marow endothelium reduces induction of stromal hematopoietic growth factors. Blood 1996; 87: 919-25.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Scadden DT, Zeira M, Woon A. et al. Human HIV-1 infection of human bone marrow stromal fibroblasts. Blood 1990; 76: 317.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Steinberg HN, Anderson J, Crumpacker CS, Chatis PA. HIV infection of the BS-1 human stromal cell line: effect on murine hematopoiesis. Virology 1993; 193: 524-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 von Laer D, Hufert FT, Fenner TE. et al. CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells are not a major reservoir of the HIV-1 virus. Blood 1990; 76: 1281.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Von Laer D, Hufert FT, Fenner TE. et al. Progenitor cells are not a major reservoir of the human immunodeficiency virus. Blood 1990; 76: 1281-6.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Zauli G, Carla-Re M, Davis B. et al. Impaired in vitro growth of purified (CD34+) hematopoietic progenitors in human immunodeficiency virus-1 seropositive thrombocytopenic individuals. Blood 1992; 79: 2680.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Zauli G, Catani L, Gibellini D. et al. Impaired survival of bone marrow GPIIb/GPIIIa+ megakaryocytic cells as an additional pathogenesis mechanism of HIV-1-related thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 1996; 92: 711-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Zucker-Franklin D, Termin CS, Cooper MC. Structural change in the megakaryocytes of patients infected with human immune deficiency virus (HIV-1). Am J Pathol 1989; 134: 1295.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Carlo-Stella C, Ganser A, Hoelzer D. Defective in vitro growth of the hematopoietic progenitor cells in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 286.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Ishibashi T, Miller SL, Burstein SA. Type β transforming growth factor is a potent direct inhibitor of murine megakaryocytopoiesis in vitro . Blood 1987; 69: 1737-41.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Kuter DJ, Gminski DM, Rosenberg RD. Transforming growth factor b inhibits megakaryocyte growth and endomitosis. Blood 1992; 09: 619-26.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Mitjavila MT, Vinci G, Villeval JL. et al. Human platelet alpha granules contain a non-specific inhibitor of megakaryocyte colony formation: its relationship to type b transforming growth factor (TGF-b). J Cell Physiol 1988; 134: 93-100.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Zauli G, Davis B, Re MC. et al. tat protein stimulates production of TGFb-1 by marrow macrophages: a potential mechanism for human HIV-1-induced hematopoietic suppression. Blood 1992; 80: 3036.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Gewirtz AM, Calabretta B, Rucinski B, Niewiarowski S, Wen Y-X. Inhibition of human megakaryocytopoiesis in vitro by platelet factor 4 (PF4) and a synthetic COOH-terminal PF4 peptide. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 1477.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Guarini A, Sanavio F, Novarino A. et al. Thrombocytopenia in acute leukemia patients treated with IL-2: cytolytic effect of LAK on megakaryocytic progenitors. Br J Haematol 1991; 79: 451.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Volkers B, Ganser A, Greher J. et al. Effect of tumor necrosis factor on human hematopoietic precursor cells. Onkolgie 1989; 12: 109.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Ganser A, Carlo-Stella C, Greher J. et al. Effect of recombinant interferons alpha and gamma on human bone marrow-derived megakaryocytic progenitor cells. Blood 1987; 70: 1171.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Sonoda Y, Kuzuyama Y, Tanaka S. et al. Human IL-4 inhibits proliferation of megakaryocyte progenitor cells in culture. Blood 1993; 81: 624.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Levy GG, Nichols WC, Lian EC, Foroud T, McClintick JN. et al. Mutations in a member of the ADAMTs gene family cause thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Nature 2001; 413: 488-94.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Furlan M, Rodolfo R, Max S, Lammle B. Acquired deficiency of von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease in a patient with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Blood 1998; 91: 2839-46.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Tsai HM, Lian EC. Antibodies to von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease in acute thrombotic thrombocytoenic purpura. N Engl J Med 998; 339: 1584-94.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Tsai HM, Chandler WL, Sarode R, Hoffman R, Jelacic S, Habeeb RL. et al. von Willebrand factor and von Willebrand factor-cleaving metalloprotease activity in Escherichia coli 0157:H7-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatric Res 2001; 49: 653-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Arai S, Allan C, Streiff M, Hutchins GM, Vogelsang GB, Tsai HM. Von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease activity and proteolysis of von Willebrand factor in bone marrow transplant-associated thrombotic microangiopathy. Hematol J 2001; 02: 292-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Sahud MA, Claster S, Liu L, Ero M, Harris K, Furlan M. von Willebrand factor-cleaving protease inhibitor in a patient with human immunodeficiency syndrome-associated thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. B J Haematol 2002; 116: 909-11.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Van Der Lelie J, Lange JMA. J.J.E. V, et al. Autoimmunity against blood cells in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Br J Haematol 1987; 67: 109.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Gonzalez-Conejero R, Rivera J, Rosillo MC, Cano A, Rodriguez Y, Vincente V. Association of autoantibodies against platelet glycoproteins Ib/IX and IIb/IIIa and platelet-reactive anti-HIV antibodies in thrombocytopenic narcotic addicts. Br J Haematol 1996; 93: 464-71.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Karpatkin S, Nardi MA, Kouri Y. Internal image anti-idiotype HIV-1gp120 antibody in human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1)-seropositive individuals with thrombocytopenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 1487-91.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Bettaieb A, Oksenhendler E, Duedari N, Bierling P. Cross-reactive antibodies between HIV-gp120 and platelet gpIIIa (CD61) in HIV-related immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Clin Exp Immunol 1996; 103: 19-23.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Chia WK, Blanchette V, Mody M, Wright JF, Freedman J. Characterization of HIV-1-specific antibodies and HIV-1-crossreactive antibodies to platelets in HIV-1-infected haemophiliac patients. Br J Haematol 1998; 103: 1014-22.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Kouri Y, Basch RS, Karpatkin S. B-cell subsets and platelet counts in HIV-1 seropositive subjects. Lancet 1992; 339: 1445-6.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Burastero SE, Casali P. Characterization of human CD5 (Leu-1, OKT1)+ B lymphocytes and the antibodies they produce in B lymphocytes: function and regulation. Microbiol Immunol 1989; 11: 231-62.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Feffer SE, Fox FL, Orsen MM. et al. Thrombotic tendencies and correlation with clinical status in patients infected with HIV. South Med J 1995; 88: 1126-30.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Stahl CP, Widerman CS, Spira TJ. et al. Protein S deficiency in men with long-term human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood 1993; 81: 1801-7.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Toulon P, Lamine M, Ledjev I, Guez T. Heparin cofactor II deficiency in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Thromb Haemost 1993; 70: 730-5.
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Bissuel F, Berruyer M. Causse, et al. Acquired protein S deficiency: Correlation with advanced disease in HIV-1-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992; 05: 484-9.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Lafeuillade A, Alssi MC, Poizot-Martin I. et al. Protein S deficiency and HIV infection. N Engl J Med 1991; 1220.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Hassell KL, Dressin DC, Neuman A, Ellsion R, Marlar RA. Correlation of antiphospholipid antibodies and protein S deficiency with thrombosis in HIV-1infected men. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1994; 05: 455-62.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Janier M, Flageul B, Drouet L, Scobohaci ML, Villette JM, Palangie A. et al. Cutaneous and plasma levels of von Willebrand factor in AIDS: a marker of endothelial stimulation. J Invest Dermatol 1988; 90: 703-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Scadden DT, Zon LI, Groopman JE. Pathophysiology and management of HIV-associated hematologic disorders. Blood 1989; 74: 1455-63.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Canoso RT, Zon LI, Groopman JE. Anticardiolipin antibodies associated with HTLV-III infection. Br J Haematol 1987; 65: 494-8.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Bloom EJ, Abrams DI, Rodgers GM. Lupus anticoagulant in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. JAMA 1986; 256: 491-3.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Cohen AJ, Philips TM, Kessler CM. Circulating coagulation inhibitors in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104: 175-80.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Leder AN, Flansbaum B, Zandman-Goddard G, Asherson R, Shoenfeld Y. Antiphospholipid syndrome induced by HIV. Lupus 2001; 10: 370-4.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Abuaf N, Laperche S. et al. Autoantibodies to phospholipids and to the coagulation proteins in AIDS. Thromb Haemost 1997; 77: 856-61.
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Shapiro SS, Thiagarajan P. Lupus anticoagulants. Prog Hemost Thromb 1982; 06: 263-85.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Bajaj SP, Rapaport SI, Barclay S, Herbst KD. Acquired hypoprothrombinemia due to non-neutralizing antibodies to prothrombin: mechanisms and management. Blood 1985; 65: 1538-43.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Cohen JR, Lackner R, Wenig P. et al. Deep venous thrombosis in patients with AIDS. NY State J Med 1991; 90: 159-61.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Saber AA, Aboolian A, LaRaja RD, Baron H, Hanna K. HIV/AIDS and the risk of deep vein thrombosis: A study of 45 patients with lower extremity involvement. Am Surg 2001; 67: 645-7.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Saif MW, Bona R, Greenberg B. AIDS and thrombosis: Retrospective study of 131 HIV-infected patients. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2001; 15: 311-20.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Friedman SM, Margo CE. Bilateral retinal central vein occlusions in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol 1988; 106: 1508-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Doberson MJ, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK. Superior sagittal sinus thrombosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Path Lab Med 1994; 118: 844-6.
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Lee CA. The natural history of HIV disease in haemophilia. Blood Rev 1998; 12: 135-44.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Bray PF, Kroner BL, Arkin S. et al. Loss of high responder inhibitors in patients with severe hemophilia A and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: A report from the multi-center hemophilia cohort study. Am J Hematol 1993; 42: 375.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Wilde JT. Protease inhibitor therapy and bleeding. Haemophilia 2000; 06: 487-90.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Racoosin JA, Kessler CM. Bleeding episodes in HIV-positive hemophiliacs taking protease inhibitors: A case series. Hemophilia 1999; 05: 266-9.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Pollman H, Richter H, Jurgens H. Platelet dysfunction as the cause of spontaneous bleeding in two hemophiliac patients taking protease inhibitors. Thromb Haemost 1998; 79: 1213-4.
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Nielsen H. Hypermenorrhea associated with ritonavir. Lancet 1999; 353: 811-2.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar