PDF herunterladen
Int J Sports Med 2021; 42(12): 1058-1069
DOI: 10.1055/a-1500-4620
Review

The Potential for Transmission of Coronaviruses via Sports Equipment; A Cricket Case Study

Rory England
1   Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
,
Nicholas Peirce
2   Sport Science & Medicine, England and Wales Cricket Board, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
,
Joseph Torresi
3   Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
,
Sean Mitchell
1   Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
,
Andy Harland
1   Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
› Institutsangaben
› Weitere Informationen
Auch verfügbar auf
    Lizenzen und Reprints

Erratum zu diesem Artikel:

Correction: The Potential for Transmission of Coronaviruses via Sports Equipment; A Cricket Case StudyInt J Sports Med 2021; 42(14): e7-e7
DOI: 10.1055/a-1560-4870

Abstract

A review of literature on the role of fomites in transmission of coronaviruses informed the development of a framework which was used to qualitatively analyse a cricket case study, where equipment is shared and passed around, and identify potential mitigation strategies. A range of pathways were identified that might in theory allow coronavirus transmission from an infected person to a non-infected person via communal or personal equipment fomites or both. Eighteen percent of potential fomite based interactions were found to be non-essential to play including all contact with another persons equipment. Six opportunities to interrupt the transmission pathway were identified, including the recommendation to screen participants for symptoms prior to play. Social distancing between participants and avoiding unnecessary surface contact provides two opportunities; firstly to avoid equipment exposure to infected respiratory droplets and secondly to avoid uninfected participants touching potential fomites. Hand sanitisation and equipment sanitisation provide two further opportunities by directly inactivating coronavirus. Preventing players from touching their mucosal membranes with their hands represents the sixth potential interruption. Whilst potential fomite transmission pathways were identified, evidence suggests that viral load will be substantially reduced during surface transfer. Mitigation strategies could further reduce potential fomites, suggesting that by comparison, direct airborne transmission presents the greater risk in cricket.

Key words

COVID-19 - coronavirus - fomite - sports Equipment - surface Transmission - cricket


Publikationsverlauf

Eingereicht: 07. Januar 2021

Angenommen: 11. Mai 2021

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
12. Juli 2021

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

 

  • Reference

  • 1 Suppawittaya P, Yiemphat P, Yasri P. Effects of social distancing, self-quarantine and self-isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic on people’s well-being, and how to cope with It. Int J Sci Health Res 2020; 5: 12-20
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Donaldson SJ, Ronan KR. The effects of sports participation on young adolescents’ emotional well-being. Adolescence 2006; 41: 369-389
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Pastor Y. Testing direct and indirect effects of sports participation on perceived health in Spanish adolescents between 15 and 18 years of age. J Adolesc 2003; 26: 717-730
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 England R, Peirce N, Wedatilake T. et al. The Potential for Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Sport; A Cricket Case Study. Int J Sports Med 2020; 407-418
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hansard. Covid-19 Update Volume 677: debated on Tuesday 23 June 2020. 2020: Col 1167. Internet: https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2020-06-23/debates/7E464B41-46ED-4FA9-BAFD-28EC7B3DA230/Covid-19Update; date accessed: 22.01.2021
  • 6 Marylebone Cricket Club. The Laws of Cricket. 2019
  • 7 Huelin R, Iheanacho I, Payne K. et al. What’s in a Name? Systematic and Non-Systematic Literature Reviews and Why the Distinction Matters Evid Forum. 2015; Internet: https://www.evidera.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Whats-in-a-Name-Systematic-and-Non-Systematic-Literature-Reviews-and-Why-the-Distinction-Matters.pdf
  • 8 Jenkins M. Materials in Sports Equipment. 1st ed.. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2003
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Rothan HA, Byrareddy SN. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J Autoimmun 2020; 109: 102433
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Peeri NC, Shrestha N, Rahman MS. et al. The SARS, MERS and novel coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemics, the newest and biggest global health threats: what lessons have we learned?. Int J Epidemiol 2020; 49: 717-726
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Otter JA, Donskey C, Yezli S. et al. Transmission of SARS and MERS coronaviruses and influenza virus in healthcare settings: The possible role of dry surface contamination. J Hosp Infect 2016; 92: 235-250
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Ding Y, He L, Zhang Q. et al. Organ distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in SARS patients: Implications for pathogenesis virus transmission pathways. J Pathol 2004; 203: 622-630
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Chan KH, Peiris JSM, Lam SY. et al. The effects of temperature and relative humidity on the viability of the SARS coronavirus. Adv Virol 2011; 2011: 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S. et al. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. J Hosp Infect 2020; 104: 246-251
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Ong SWX, Tan YK, Chia PY. et al. Air, Surface Environmental, and Personal Protective Equipment Contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a Symptomatic Patient. JAMA 2020; 323: 1610-1612
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Peiris JSM, Chu CM, Cheng VCC. et al. Clinical progression and viral load in a community outbreak of coronavirus-associated SARS pneumonia: A prospective study. Lancet 2003; 361: 1767-1772
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Morgenstern J. Aerosols, Droplets, and Airborne Spread: Everything you could possibly want to know. First10EM 2020 Internet: https://first10em.com/aerosols-droplets-and-airborne-spread/ date accessed: 22.05.2020
  • 18 Morawska L. Droplet fate in indoor environments, or can we prevent the spread of infection?. Indoor Air 2006; 16: 335-347
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Fiegel J, Clarke R, Edwards DA. Airborne infectious disease and the suppression of pulmonary bioaerosols. Drug Discov Today 2006; 11: 51-57
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 To KK-W, Tsang OT-Y, Yip CC-Y. et al. Consistent detection of 2019 novel coronavirus in saliva. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 71: 841-843
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 To KKW, Tsang OTY, Leung WS. et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20: 565-574
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Xu R, Cui B, Duan X. et al. Saliva: potential diagnostic value and transmission of 2019-nCoV. Int J Oral Sci 2020; 12: 11
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Verani M, Bigazzi R, Carducci A. Viral contamination of aerosol and surfaces through toilet use in health care and other settings. Am J Infect Control 2014; 42: 758-762
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Liu J, Li Y, Liu L. et al. Infection of human sweat glands by SARS-CoV-2. Cell Discov 2020; 6: 84
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Propper RE. Is sweat a possible route of transmission of SARS-CoV-2?. Exp Biol Med 2020; 245: 997-998
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Pearson H. SARS linked to sweat. Nature 2004; doi:10.1038/news040503-13
  • 27 Fathizadeh H, Taghizadeh S, Safari R. et al. Study presence of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) in the sweat of patients infected with Covid-19. Microb Pathog 2020; 149: 104556
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Decaro N. Betacoronavirus. In: Tidona C, Darai G. The Springer Index of Viruses. 2nd Edition. Springer-Verlag; New York: 2011: 385-400
    Google Scholar
  • 29 Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J. et al. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci 2020; 12: 8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Ren X, Glende J, Al-Falah M. et al. Analysis of ACE2 in polarized epithelial cells: Surface expression and function as receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus. J Gen Virol 2006; 87: 1691-1695
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Lan J, Ge J, Yu J. et al. Structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain bound to the ACE2 receptor. Nature 2020; 581: 215-220
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Pei H, Liu J, Cheng Y. et al. Expression of SARS-coronavirus nucleocapsid protein in Escherichia coli and Lactococcus lactis for serodiagnosis and mucosal vaccination. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2005; 68: 220-227
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Warnes SL, Little ZR, Keevil CW. Human coronavirus 229E remains infectious on common touch surface materials. mBio 2015; 6: e01697-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH. et al. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 1564-1567
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 World Health Organization. First data on stability and resistance of SARS coronavirus compiled by members of WHO laboratory network. Internet: https://www.who.int/csr/sars/survival_2003_05_04/en/
  • 36 Duan SM, Zhao XS, Wen RF. et al. Stability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating and UV irradiation. Biomed Environ Sci 2003; 16: 246-255
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Lai MYY, Cheng PKC, Lim WWL. Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: e67-e71
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Rabenau HF, Cinatl J, Morgenstern B. et al. Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Med Microbiol Immunol 2005; 194: 1-6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Munster VJ. Stability of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus ( MERS-CoV ) under different environmental conditions. Euro Surveill 2013; 18: 20590
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Edwards T, Kay GA, Aljayyoussi G. et al. SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Risk from sports Equipment (STRIKE). medRxiv 2021; DOI: 10.1101/2021.02.04.21251127.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Pelisser M, Thompson J, Majra D et al. Sports balls as potential SARS-CoV-2 transmission vectors. Public Heal Pract (Oxf) 2020; 100029
  • 42 Bean B, More B, Sterner B. et al. Survival of cytomegalovirus on environmental surfaces. J Infect Dis 1982; 146: 649-652
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Derraik JGB, Anderson WA, Connelly EA. et al. Rapid evidence summary on SARS-CoV-2 survivorship and disinfection, and a reusable PPE protocol using a double-hit process. medRxiv 2020 2020.04.02.20051409
  • 44 Chaudhary NK, Chaudhary N, Dahal M. et al. Fighting the SARS CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic with soap. Preprints 2020; 1-19 doi: 10.20944/preprints202005.0060
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Pradhan D, Biswasroy P, Kumar naik P. et al. A review of current interventions for COVID-19 prevention. Arch Med Res 2020; 51: 363-374
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Rabenau HF, Kampf G, Cinatl J. et al. Efficacy of various disinfectants against SARS coronavirus. J Hosp Infect 2005; 61: 107-111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Siddharta A, Pfaender S, Vielle NJ. et al. Virucidal activity of world health organization-recommended formulations against enveloped viruses, including zika, ebola, and emerging coronaviruses. J Infect Dis 2017; 215: 902-906
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Hulkower RL, Casanova LM, Rutala WA. et al. Inactivation of surrogate coronaviruses on hard surfaces by health care germicides. Am J Infect Control 2011; 39: 401-407
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Sattar SA, Springthorpe VS, Karim Y. et al. Chemical disinfection of non-porous inanimate surfaces experimentally contaminated with four human pathogenic viruses. Epidemiol Infect 1989; 102: 493-505
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Omidbakhsh N, Sattar SA. Broad-spectrum microbicidal activity, toxicologic assessment, and materials compatibility of a new generation of accelerated hydrogen peroxide-based environmental surface disinfectant. Am J Infect Control 2006; 34: 251-257
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Darnell MER, Subbarao K, Feinstone SM. et al. Inactivation of the coronavirus that induces severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS-CoV. J Virol Methods 2004; 121: 85-91
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Wood A, Payne D. The action of three antiseptics/disinfectants against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. J Hosp Infect 1998; 38: 283-295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Saknimit M, Inatsuki I, Sugiyama Y. et al. Virucidal efficacy of physico-chemical treatments against coronaviruses and parvoviruses of laboratory animals. Jikken Dobutsu 1988; 37: 341-345
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Heimbuch B, Harnish D. ARA Research to Mitigate a Shortage of Respiratory Protection Devices During Public Health Emergencies. www.ara.com 2019; Internet: https://www.ara.com/news/ara-research-mitigate-shortage-respiratory-protection-devices-during-public-health-emergencies
  • 55 Bedell K, Buchaklian AH, Perlman S. Efficacy of an automated multiple emitter whole-room Ultraviolet-C disinfection system against coronaviruses MHV and MERS-CoV. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2016; 37: 598-599
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Lowe JJ, Paladino KD, Farke JD. et al. N95 Filtering Facemask Respirator Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) Process for Decontamination and Reuse. Nebraska Medicine, 2020; Available at: https://www. nebraskamed.com/sites/default/files/documents/covid-19/n-95- decon-process.pdf
  • 57 Tseng CC, Li CS. Inactivation of viruses on surfaces by ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. J Occup Environ Hyg 2007; 4: 400-405
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Card KJ, Crozier D, Dhawan A et al. UV Sterilization of personal protective equipment with idle laboratory biosafety cabinets during the Covid-19 pandemic. medRxiv 2020.03.25.20043489. doi: 2020.03.25.20043489
  • 59 Harriss D, Macsween A, Atkinson G. Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research: 2020 update. Int J Sports Med 2019; 40: 813-817
    Artikel in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar