Download PDF
Semin Reprod Med 2020; 38(06): 366-376
DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1727203
Review Article

Metformin for Preventing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women with a Previous Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes: A Narrative Review

Vincent L. Versace
1   School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
,
Hannah Beks
1   School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
,
Hannah Wesley
1   School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
2   Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai, India
,
Kevin McNamara
1   School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
,
William Hague
3   Robinson Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
,
Ranjit Mohan Anjana
2   Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai, India
,
Viswanathan Mohan
2   Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai, India
,
Kamlesh Khunti
4   Diabetes Research Centre, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
,
James A. Dunbar
1   School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) when compared with women who have not had GDM. To delay or prevent T2DM, guidelines recommend regular screening in the primary care setting and lifestyle interventions that are largely focused on dietary and physical activity modifications. As the postpartum period can be challenging for women, uptake and engagement in screening and lifestyle interventions have been poor. Poor uptake and engagement places women with a history of GDM at heightened risk for future morbidity and development of T2DM. Metformin has been a longstanding and safe treatment for the control of blood glucose in people with T2DM. Research has supported the efficacy of metformin, used as an adjunct to a lifestyle intervention or as a stand-alone treatment, in preventing T2DM in people at high risk of T2DM. Findings from longitudinal studies have demonstrated the potential for metformin to reduce conversion to T2DM when used by women with a previous diagnosis of GDM. This review examines the potential effectiveness of metformin to reduce the incidence of T2DM among women with a previous diagnosis of GDM in the “real-world” setting.

Keywords

gestational diabetes - type 2 diabetes mellitus - risk factors - preventive medicine - metformin


Publication History

Article published online:
15 April 2021

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Plows JF, Stanley JL, Baker PN, Reynolds CM, Vickers MH. The pathophysiology of gestational diabetes mellitus. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19 (11) 1-21
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Mirghani Dirar A, Doupis J. Gestational diabetes from A to Z. World J Diabetes 2017; 8 (12) 489-511
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Vounzoulaki E, Khunti K, Abner SC, Tan BK, Davies MJ, Gillies CL. Progression to type 2 diabetes in women with a known history of gestational diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2020; 369 (1361): m1361
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Nguyen CL, Pham NM, Binns CW, Duong DV, Lee AH. Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Eastern and Southeastern Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Diabetes Res 2018; 2018 (6536974): 6536974
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hex N, Bartlett C, Wright D, Taylor M, Varley D. Estimating the current and future costs of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes in the UK, including direct health costs and indirect societal and productivity costs. Diabet Med 2012; 29 (07) 855-862
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Teh WT, Teede HJ, Paul E, Harrison CL, Wallace EM, Allan C. Risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus: implications for the application of screening guidelines. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2011; 51 (01) 26-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Abouzeid M, Philpot B, Janus ED, Coates MJ, Dunbar JA. Type 2 diabetes prevalence varies by socio-economic status within and between migrant groups: analysis and implications for Australia. BMC Public Health 2013; 13 (01) 252
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Abouzeid M, Versace VL, Janus ED. et al. A population-based observational study of diabetes during pregnancy in Victoria, Australia, 1999-2008. BMJ Open 2014; 4 (11) e005394
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Behboudi-Gandevani S, Amiri M, Bidhendi Yarandi R, Ramezani Tehrani F. The impact of diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes on its prevalence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2019; 11 (11) 11
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Metzger BE, Gabbe SG, Persson B. et al; International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2010; 33 (03) 676-682
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Moses RG, Morris GJ, Petocz P, San Gil F, Garg D. The impact of potential new diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Australia. Med J Aust 2011; 194 (07) 338-340
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2002; 25 (10) 1862-1868
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE. et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346 (06) 393-403
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Moon JH, Kwak SH, Jang HC. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. Korean J Intern Med (Korean Assoc Intern Med) 2017; 32 (01) 26-41
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 O'Reilly SL, Dunbar JA, Best JD. et al; MAGDA Study Group. GooD4Mum: a general practice-based quality improvement collaborative for diabetes prevention in women with previous gestational diabetes. Prim Care Diabetes 2019; 13 (02) 134-141
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 O'Reilly SL, Dunbar JA, Versace V. et al; MAGDA Study Group. Mothers after Gestational Diabetes in Australia (MAGDA): a randomised controlled trial of a postnatal diabetes prevention program. PLoS Med 2016; 13 (07) e1002092
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Pennington AVR, O'Reilly SL, Young D, Dunbar JA. Improving follow-up care for women with a history of gestational diabetes: perspectives of GPs and patients. Aust J Prim Health 2017; 23 (01) 66-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Ratner RE. Prevention of type 2 diabetes in women with previous gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007; 30 (Suppl. 02) S242-S245
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Ratner RE, Christophi CA, Metzger BE. et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Prevention of diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes: effects of metformin and lifestyle interventions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93 (12) 4774-4779
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Rayanagoudar G, Hashi AA, Zamora J, Khan KS, Hitman GA, Thangaratinam S. Quantification of the type 2 diabetes risk in women with gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 95,750 women. Diabetologia 2016; 59 (07) 1403-1411
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S. et al. Association of gestational weight gain with maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2017; 317 (21) 2207-2225
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Kousta E, Efstathiadou Z, Lawrence NJ. et al. The impact of ethnicity on glucose regulation and the metabolic syndrome following gestational diabetes. Diabetologia 2006; 49 (01) 36-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Ignell C, Shaat N, Ekelund M, Berntorp K. The impact of ethnicity on glucose homeostasis after gestational diabetes mellitus. Acta Diabetol 2013; 50 (06) 927-934
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Lee KW, Ching SM, Ramachandran V. et al. Prevalence and risk factors of gestational diabetes mellitus in Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018; 18 (01) 494
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. . Diabetes in pregnancy: its impact on Australian women and their babies. Updated December 13, 2010. Accessed October 20, 2020 at: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/diabetes/diabetes-pregnancy-impact-on-women-babies/contents/table-of-contents
    PubMed
  • 26 Chamberlain CR, Oldenburg B, Wilson AN. et al. Type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: greater than fourfold risk among indigenous compared with non-indigenous Australian women. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2016; 32 (02) 217-227
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams D. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2009; 373 (9677): 1773-1779
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period NICE guideline [NG3]. Updated August 26, 2015. Accessed October 19, 2020 at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. General practice management of type 2 diabetes. Updated 2016. Accessed October 19, 2020 at: https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/General-Practice-Management-of-Type-2-Diabetes-2016-18.pdf
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 McGovern A, Butler L, Jones S. et al. Diabetes screening after gestational diabetes in England: a quantitative retrospective cohort study. Br J Gen Pract 2014; 64 (618) e17-e23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Lindström J, Ilanne-Parikka P, Peltonen M. et al; Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Sustained reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: follow-up of the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Lancet 2006; 368 (9548): 1673-1679
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG. et al; Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2001; 344 (18) 1343-1350
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Absetz P, Valve R, Oldenburg B. et al. Type 2 diabetes prevention in the “real world”: one-year results of the GOAL Implementation Trial. Diabetes Care 2007; 30 (10) 2465-2470
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Laatikainen T, Dunbar JA, Chapman A. et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention in an Australian primary health care setting: Greater Green Triangle (GGT) Diabetes Prevention Project. BMC Public Health 2007; 7 (249) 249
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Nielsen KK, Kapur A, Damm P, de Courten M, Bygbjerg IC. From screening to postpartum follow-up - the determinants and barriers for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) services, a systematic review. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2014; 14 (41) 41
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Boyd J, McMillan B, Easton K, Delaney B, Mitchell C. Utility of the COM-B model in identifying facilitators and barriers to maintaining a healthy postnatal lifestyle following a diagnosis of gestational diabetes: a qualitative study. BMJ Open 2020; 10 (08) e037318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Bennett WL, Ennen CS, Carrese JA. et al. Barriers to and facilitators of postpartum follow-up care in women with recent gestational diabetes mellitus: a qualitative study. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2011; 20 (02) 239-245
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Li J, Song C, Li C, Liu P, Sun Z, Yang X. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in women with prior gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2018; 140: 324-338
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Zhu Y, Zhang C. Prevalence of gestational diabetes and risk of progression to type 2 diabetes: a global perspective. Curr Diab Rep 2016; 16 (01) 7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Shah BR, Retnakaran R, Booth GL. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young women following gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2008; 31 (08) 1668-1669
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Pace R, Brazeau AS, Meltzer S, Rahme E, Dasgupta K. Conjoint associations of gestational diabetes and hypertension with diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease in parents: a retrospective cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 2017; 186 (10) 1115-1124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2019; 62 (06) 905-914
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Voerman E, Santos S, Patro Golab B. et al. Maternal body mass index, gestational weight gain, and the risk of overweight and obesity across childhood: an individual participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2019; 16 (02) e1002744
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Patro Golab B, Santos S, Voerman E, Lawlor DA, Jaddoe VWV, Gaillard R. MOCO Study Group Authors. Influence of maternal obesity on the association between common pregnancy complications and risk of childhood obesity: an individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 2018; 2 (11) 812-821
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Luo Z-C, Delvin E, Fraser WD. et al. Maternal glucose tolerance in pregnancy affects fetal insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Care 2010; 33 (09) 2055-2061
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Grunnet LG, Hansen S, Hjort L. et al. Adiposity, dysmetabolic traits, and earlier onset of female puberty in adolescent offspring of women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a clinical study within the Danish national birth cohort. Diabetes Care 2017; 40 (12) 1746-1755
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Aagaard KA, Al-Far HM, Piscator U, Krogh RA, Lauszus FF. Manifest diabetes after gestational diabetes: a double-cohort, long-term follow-up in a Danish population. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2020; 302 (05) 1271-1278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Greenhalgh T, Thorne S, Malterud K. Time to challenge the spurious hierarchy of systematic over narrative reviews?. Eur J Clin Invest 2018; 48 (06) e12931
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Thayer SM, Lo JO, Caughey AB. Gestational diabetes: importance of follow-up screening for the benefit of long-term health. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2020; 47 (03) 383-396
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 American Diabetes Association. 14. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: standards of medical care in diabetes-2020. Diabetes Care 2020; 43 (Suppl. 01) S183-S192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. ADIPS Consensus Guidelines for the Testing and Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Australia. Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Updated 2013. Available at: http://www.adips.org/downloads/ADIPSConsensusGuidelinesGDM-03.05.13VersionACCEPTEDFINAL.pdf
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Goueslard K, Cottenet J, Mariet AS, Sagot P, Petit JM, Quantin C. Early screening for type 2 diabetes following gestational diabetes mellitus in France: hardly any impact of the 2010 guidelines. Acta Diabetol 2017; 54 (07) 645-651
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Boyle DIR, Versace VL, Dunbar JA. et al; MAGDA Study Group. Results of the first recorded evaluation of a national gestational diabetes mellitus register: challenges in screening, registration, and follow-up for diabetes risk. PLoS One 2018; 13 (08) e0200832
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Pastore I, Chiefari E, Vero R, Brunetti A. Postpartum glucose intolerance: an updated overview. Endocrine 2018; 59 (03) 481-494
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Fahami R, Dhalwani N, Khunti K, Davies M, Seidu S. Postpartum monitoring of women with a history of gestational diabetes - a cross-sectional study of an inner-city population. Prim Care Diabetes 2019; 13 (04) 376-379
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Keely E, Clark H, Karovitch A, Graham I. Screening for type 2 diabetes following gestational diabetes: family physician and patient perspectives. Can Fam Physician 2010; 56 (06) 558-563
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Balaji B, Ranjit Mohan A, Rajendra P, Mohan D, Ram U, Viswanathan M. Gestational diabetes mellitus postpartum follow-up testing: challenges and solutions. Can J Diabetes 2019; 43 (08) 641-646
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Agarwal MM, Punnose J, Dhatt GS. Gestational diabetes: implications of variation in post-partum follow-up criteria. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004; 113 (02) 149-153
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Pierce M, Modder J, Mortagy I, Springett A, Hughes H, Baldeweg S. Missed opportunities for diabetes prevention: post-pregnancy follow-up of women with gestational diabetes mellitus in England. Br J Gen Pract 2011; 61 (591) e611-e619
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Moore AP, D'Amico MI, Cooper NAM, Thangaratinam S. Designing a lifestyle intervention to reduce risk of type 2 diabetes in postpartum mothers following gestational diabetes: an online survey with mothers and health professionals. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2018; 220: 106-112
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Infanti JJ, O'Dea A, Gibson I. et al. Reasons for participation and non-participation in a diabetes prevention trial among women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). BMC Med Res Methodol 2014; 14 (01) 13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Nicklas JM, Zera CA, Seely EW, Abdul-Rahim ZS, Rudloff ND, Levkoff SE. Identifying postpartum intervention approaches to prevent type 2 diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2011; 11 (01) 23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Lie MLS, Hayes L, Lewis-Barned NJ, May C, White M, Bell R. Preventing type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: women's experiences and implications for diabetes prevention interventions. Diabet Med 2013; 30 (08) 986-993
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Buelo AK, Kirk A, Lindsay RS, Jepson RG. Exploring the effectiveness of physical activity interventions in women with previous gestational diabetes: a systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Prev Med Rep 2019; 14 (100877): 100877
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Hoedjes M, Berks D, Vogel I. et al. Motivators and barriers to a healthy postpartum lifestyle in women at increased cardiovascular and metabolic risk: a focus-group study. Hypertens Pregnancy 2012; 31 (01) 147-155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Dasgupta K, Da Costa D, Pillay S. et al. Strategies to optimize participation in diabetes prevention programs following gestational diabetes: a focus group study. PLoS One 2013; 8 (07) e67878
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Ingol TT, Kue J, Conrey EJ, Oza-Frank R, Weber MB, Bower JK. Perceived barriers to type 2 diabetes prevention for low-income women with a history of gestational diabetes: a qualitative secondary data analysis. Diabetes Educ 2020; 46 (03) 271-278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Morrison MK, Lowe JM, Collins CE. Perceived risk of Type 2 diabetes in Australian women with a recent history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2010; 27 (08) 882-886
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Kim C, McEwen LN, Piette JD, Goewey J, Ferrara A, Walker EA. Risk perception for diabetes among women with histories of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30 (09) 2281-2286
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Hewage SS, Wu S, Neelakantan N, Yoong J. Systematic review of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of lifestyle interventions to improve clinical diabetes outcome measures in women with a history of GDM. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2020; 35 (01) 20-29
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 McManus R, Miller D, Mottola M, Giroux I, Donovan L. Translating healthy living messages to postpartum women and their partners after gestational diabetes (GDM): body habitus, A1C, lifestyle habits, and program engagement results from the Families Defeating Diabetes (FDD) randomized trial. Am J Health Promot 2018; 32 (06) 1438-1446
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Ferrara A, Hedderson MM, Albright CL. et al. A pregnancy and postpartum lifestyle intervention in women with gestational diabetes mellitus reduces diabetes risk factors: a feasibility randomized control trial. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 (07) 1519-1525
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Zehle K, Smith BJ, Chey T, McLean M, Bauman AE, Cheung NW. Psychosocial factors related to diet among women with recent gestational diabetes: opportunities for intervention. Diabetes Educ 2008; 34 (05) 807-814
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Koivusalo SB, Rönö K, Klemetti MM. et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus can be prevented by lifestyle intervention: the Finnish Gestational Diabetes Prevention Study (RADIEL): a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2016; 39 (01) 24-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Ehrlich SF, Hedderson MM, Quesenberry Jr CP. et al. Post-partum weight loss and glucose metabolism in women with gestational diabetes: the DEBI Study. Diabet Med 2014; 31 (07) 862-867
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Lim S, Hill B, Teede HJ, Moran LJ, O'Reilly S. An evaluation of the impact of lifestyle interventions on body weight in postpartum women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev 2020; 21 (04) e12990
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Gong L, Goswami S, Giacomini KM, Altman RB, Klein TE. Metformin pathways: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2012; 22 (11) 820-827
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Hundal RS, Krssak M, Dufour S. et al. Mechanism by which metformin reduces glucose production in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2000; 49 (12) 2063-2069
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Reitman ML, Schadt EE. Pharmacogenetics of metformin response: a step in the path toward personalized medicine. J Clin Invest 2007; 117 (05) 1226-1229
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Herman WH, Ratner RE. Metformin should be used to treat prediabetes in selected individuals. Diabetes Care 2020; 43 (09) 1988-1990
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Doi SAR, Furuya-Kanamori L, Toft E. et al. Metformin in pregnancy to avert gestational diabetes in women at high risk: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obes Rev 2020; 21 (01) e12964
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Vanky E, Salvesen KA, Heimstad R, Fougner KJ, Romundstad P, Carlsen SM. Metformin reduces pregnancy complications without affecting androgen levels in pregnant polycystic ovary syndrome women: results of a randomized study. Hum Reprod 2004; 19 (08) 1734-1740
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Løvvik TS, Carlsen SM, Salvesen Ø. et al. Use of metformin to treat pregnant women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PregMet2): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2019; 7 (04) 256-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Dodd JM, Louise J, Deussen AR. et al. Effect of metformin in addition to dietary and lifestyle advice for pregnant women who are overweight or obese: the GRoW randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2019; 7 (01) 15-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Dodd JM, Grivell RM, Deussen AR, Hague WM. Metformin for women who are overweight or obese during pregnancy for improving maternal and infant outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 7 (07) CD010564
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Eyal S, Easterling TR, Carr D. et al. Pharmacokinetics of metformin during pregnancy. Drug Metab Dispos 2010; 38 (05) 833-840
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Charles B, Norris R, Xiao X, Hague W. Population pharmacokinetics of metformin in late pregnancy. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28 (01) 67-72
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Sonagra AD, Biradar SM, , K D, Jayaprakash Murthy DS. Normal pregnancy- a state of insulin resistance. J Clin Diagn Res 2014; 8 (11) CC01-CC03
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Rowan JA, Hague WM, Gao W, Battin MR, Moore MP. MiG Trial Investigators. Metformin versus insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358 (19) 2003-2015
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Rowan JA, Rush EC, Plank LD. et al. Metformin in gestational diabetes: the offspring follow-up (MiG TOFU): body composition and metabolic outcomes at 7-9 years of age. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2018; 6 (01) e000456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Wouldes TA, Battin M, Coat S, Rush EC, Hague WM, Rowan JA. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years in offspring of women randomised to metformin or insulin treatment for gestational diabetes. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2016; 101 (06) F488-F493
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Rowan JA, Rush EC, Obolonkin V, Battin M, Wouldes T, Hague WM. Metformin in gestational diabetes: the offspring follow-up (MiG TOFU): body composition at 2 years of age. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 (10) 2279-2284
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Mousa A, Løvvik T, Hilkka I. et al. Metformin in Pregnancy Study (MiPS): protocol for a systematic review with individual patient data meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2020; 10 (05) e036981
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Priya G, Kalra S. Metformin in the management of diabetes during pregnancy and lactation. Drugs Context 2018; 7: 212523
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Aroda VR, Knowler WC, Crandall JP. et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Metformin for diabetes prevention: insights gained from the Diabetes Prevention Program/Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Diabetologia 2017; 60 (09) 1601-1611
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Madsen KS, Chi Y, Metzendorf MI, Richter B, Hemmingsen B. Metformin for prevention or delay of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its associated complications in persons at increased risk for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 12 (12) CD008558
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Lentferink YE, Knibbe CAJ, van der Vorst MMJ. Efficacy of metformin treatment with respect to weight reduction in children and adults with obesity: a systematic review. Drugs 2018; 78 (18) 1887-1901
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Mary S, Mukesh B, Bhaskar AD, Vijay V. Indian Diabetes Prevention Programme (IDPP). The Indian Diabetes Prevention Programme shows that lifestyle modification and metformin prevent type 2 diabetes in Asian Indian subjects with impaired glucose tolerance (IDPP-1). Diabetologia 2006; 49 (02) 289-297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Knowler WC, Fowler SE, Hamman RF. et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet 2009; 374 (9702): 1677-1686
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Long-term effects of lifestyle intervention or metformin on diabetes development and microvascular complications over 15-year follow-up: the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015; 3 (11) 866-875
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Gillies CL, Abrams KR, Lambert PC. et al. Pharmacological and lifestyle interventions to prevent or delay type 2 diabetes in people with impaired glucose tolerance: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2007; 334 (7588): 299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Stevens JW, Khunti K, Harvey R. et al. Preventing the progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults at high risk: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of lifestyle, pharmacological and surgical interventions. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2015; 107 (03) 320-331
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Xiang AH, Trigo E, Martinez M. et al; RISE Consortium, RISE Collaborators. Impact of gastric banding versus metformin on β-cell function in adults with impaired glucose tolerance or mild type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2018; 41 (12) 2544-2551
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Li CL, Pan CY, Lu JM. et al. Effect of metformin on patients with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabet Med 1999; 16 (06) 477-481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Weber MB, Ranjani H, Meyers GC, Mohan V, Narayan KM. A model of translational research for diabetes prevention in low and middle-income countries: the Diabetes Community Lifestyle Improvement Program (D-CLIP) trial. Prim Care Diabetes 2012; 6 (01) 3-9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Weber MB, Ranjani H, Staimez LR. et al. The stepwise approach to diabetes prevention: results from the D-CLIP randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2016; 39 (10) 1760-1767
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Iqbal Hydrie MZ, Basit A, Shera AS, Hussain A. Effect of intervention in subjects with high risk of diabetes mellitus in Pakistan. J Nutr Metab 2012; 2012 (867604): 867604
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Long-term effects of metformin on diabetes prevention: identification of subgroups that benefited most in the diabetes prevention program and diabetes prevention program outcomes study. Diabetes Care 2019; 42 (04) 601-608
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes-2015 abridged for primary care providers. Clin Diabetes 2015; 33 (02) 97-111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 2 diabetes: prevention in people at high risk Public health guideline [PH38]. Updated September 15, 2017. Accessed December 4, 2020 at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/PH38/chapter/Recommendations#metformin
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Daniele G, Tura A, Dardano A. et al. Effects of treatment with metformin and/or sitagliptin on beta-cell function and insulin resistance in prediabetic women with previous gestational diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2020; 22 (04) 648-657
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Clinical Trials, Combined Liraglutide and Metformin Therapy in Women with Previous Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). 2010 [ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01234649]. Available at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01234649
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Morton S, Kirkwood S, Thangaratinam S. Interventions to modify the progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus in women with gestational diabetes: a systematic review of literature. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2014; 26 (06) 476-486
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Ibáñez L, de Zegher F. Exploring the use of metformin in pregnant women with polycystic ovary syndrome: new evidence, new wisdom. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2019; 7 (04) 242-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Lazaridou S, Dinas K, Tziomalos K. Prevalence, pathogenesis and management of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Hormones (Athens) 2017; 16 (04) 373-380
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Amaefule CE, Bolou A, Drymoussi Z. et al. Effectiveness and acceptability of metformin in preventing the onset of type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes in postnatal women: a protocol for a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind feasibility trial—Optimising health outcomes with Metformin to prevent diAbetes After pregnancy (OMAhA). BMJ Open 2020; 10 (05) e036198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Morgan MAJ, Coates MJ, Dunbar JA, Reddy P, Schlicht K, Fuller J. The TrueBlue model of collaborative care using practice nurses as case managers for depression alongside diabetes or heart disease: a randomised trial. BMJ Open 2013; 3 (01) 1-11
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Dunbar JA, Hernan AL, Janus ED. et al. Challenges of diabetes prevention in the real world: results and lessons from the Melbourne Diabetes Prevention Study. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care 2015; 3 (01) e000131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar