Aktuelle Ernährungsmedizin 2007; 32: S97-S105
DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-951894
Leitlinie Parenterale Ernährung der DGEM
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

16 Hepatologie

M.  Plauth (AG-Leiter), T.  Schütz
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
04 March 2008 (online)

Literatur

  • 1 Mendenhall C L, Tosch T, Weesner R E. et al . VA cooperative study on alcoholic hepatitis. II: Prognostic significance of protein-calorie malnutrition.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;  43 213-218
  • 2 Mendenhall C L, Moritz T E, Roselle G A. et al . A study of oral nutritional support with oxandrolone in malnourished patients with alcoholic hepatitis: results of a Department of Veterans Affairs cooperative study.  Hepatology. 1993;  17 564-576
  • 3 Mendenhall C L, Moritz T E, Roselle G A. et al . Protein energy malnutrition in severe alcoholic hepatitis: diagnosis and response to treatment. The VA Cooperative Study Group #275.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1995;  19 258-265
  • 4 Plauth M, Merli M, Kondrup J, Ferenci P, Weimann A, Müller M. ESPEN Guidelines for nutrition in liver disease and transplantation.  Clin Nutr. 1997;  16 43-55
  • 5 Achord J L. A prospective randomized clinical trial of peripheral amino acid-glucose supplementation in acute alcoholic hepatitis.  Am J Gastroenterol. 1987;  82 871-875
  • 6 Bonkovsky H L, Fiellin D A, Smith G S, Slaker D P, Simon D, Galambos J T. A randomized, controlled trial of treatment of alcoholic hepatitis with parenteral nutrition and oxandrolone. I. Short-term effects on liver function.  Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;  86 1200-1208
  • 7 Bonkovsky H L, Singh R H, Jafri I H. et al . A randomized, controlled trial of treatment of alcoholic hepatitis with parenteral nutrition and oxandrolone. II. Short-term effects on nitrogen metabolism, metabolic balance, and nutrition.  Am J Gastroenterol. 1991;  86 1209-1218
  • 8 Calvey H, Davis M, Williams R. Controlled trial of nutritional supplementation, with and without branched chain amino acid enrichment, in treatment of acute alcoholic hepatitis.  J Hepatol. 1985;  1 141-151
  • 9 Diehl A M, Boitnott J K, Herlong H F. et al . Effect of parenteral amino acid supplementation in alcoholic hepatitis.  Hepatology. 1985;  5 57-63
  • 10 Mezey E, Caballeria J, Mitchell M C, Pares A, Herlong H F, Rodes J. Effect of parenteral amino acid supplementation on short-term and long-term outcomes in severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized controlled trial.  Hepatology. 1991;  14 1090-1096
  • 11 Nasrallah S M, Galambos J T. Aminoacid therapy of alcoholic hepatitis.  Lancet. 1980;  2 1276-1277
  • 12 Naveau S, Pelletier G, Poynard T. et al . A randomized clinical trial of supplementary parenteral nutrition in jaundiced alcoholic cirrhotic patients.  Hepatology. 1986;  6 270-274
  • 13 Simon D, Galambos J T. A randomized controlled study of peripheral parenteral nutrition in moderate and severe alcoholic hepatitis.  J Hepatol. 1988;  7 200-207
  • 14 Swart G R, Zillikens M C, Vuure J K van, Berg J W van den. Effect of a late evening meal on nitrogen balance in patients with cirrhosis of the liver.  BMJ. 1989;  299 1202-1203
  • 15 Verboeket-van de Venne W P, Westerterp K R, Hoek B van, Swart G R. Energy expenditure and substrate metabolism in patients with cirrhosis of the liver: effects of the pattern of food intake.  Gut. 1995;  36 110-116
  • 16 Zillikens M C, Berg J W van den, Wattimena J L, Rietveld T, Swart G R. Nocturnal oral glucose supplementation. The effects on protein metabolism in cirrhotic patients and in healthy controls.  J Hepatol. 1993;  17 377-383
  • 17 John W J, Phillips R, Ott L, Adams L J, McClain C J. Resting energy expenditure in patients with alcoholic hepatitis.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1989;  13 124-127
  • 18 Österreichische Arbeitsgemeinschaft für klinische Ernährung .Empfehlungen für die parenterale und enterale Ernährungstherapie des Erwachsenen - Version 2004. http://www.ake-nutrition.at 2004
  • 19 Alberino F, Gatta A, Amodio P. et al . Nutrition and survival in patients with liver cirrhosis.  Nutrition. 2001;  17 445-450
  • 20 Caregaro L, Alberino F, Amodio P. et al . Malnutrition in alcoholic and virus-related cirrhosis.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;  63 602-609
  • 21 Harrison J, McKiernan J, Neuberger J M. A prospective study on the effect of recipient nutritional status on outcome in liver transplantation.  Transpl Int. 1997;  10 369-374
  • 22 Merli M, Riggio O, Dally L. Does malnutrition affect survival in cirrhosis? PINC (Policentrica Italiana Nutrizione Cirrosi).  Hepatology. 1996;  23 1041-1046
  • 23 Moukarzel A A, Najm I, Vargas J, McDiarmid S V, Busuttil R W, Ament M E. Effect of nutritional status on outcome of orthotopic liver transplantation in pediatric patients.  Transplant Proc. 1990;  22 1560-1563
  • 24 Pikul J, Sharpe M D, Lowndes R, Ghent C N. Degree of preoperative malnutrition is predictive of postoperative morbidity and mortality in liver transplant recipients.  Transplantation. 1994;  57 469-472
  • 25 Selberg O, Böttcher J, Pirlich M, Henkel E, Manns M, Müller M. Clinical significance and correlates of whole body potassium status in patients with liver cirrhosis.  Hepatology. 2006;  16 36-48
  • 26 Selberg O, Böttcher J, Tusch G, Pichlmayr R, Henkel E, Müller M J. Identification of high- and low-risk patients before liver transplantation: a prospective cohort study of nutritional and metabolic parameters in 150 patients.  Hepatology. 1997;  25 652-657
  • 27 No authors listed. Nutritional status in cirrhosis. Italian Multicentre Cooperative Project on Nutrition in Liver Cirrhosis.  J Hepatol. 1994;  21 317-325
  • 28 Lautz H U, Selberg O, Korber J, Bürger M, Müller M J. Protein-calorie malnutrition in liver cirrhosis.  Clin Investig. 1992;  70 478-486
  • 29 Bunout D, Aicardi V, Hirsch S. et al . Nutritional support in hospitalized patients with alcoholic liver disease.  Eur J Clin Nutr. 1989;  43 615-621
  • 30 Cabre E, Gonzalez-Huix F, Abad-Lacruz A. et al . Effect of total enteral nutrition on the short-term outcome of severely malnourished cirrhotics. A randomized controlled trial.  Gastroenterology. 1990;  98 715-720
  • 31 Kearns P J, Young H, Garcia G. et al . Accelerated improvement of alcoholic liver disease with enteral nutrition.  Gastroenterology. 1992;  102 200-205
  • 32 Kondrup J, Müller M J. Energy and protein requirements of patients with chronic liver disease.  J Hepatol. 1997;  27 239-247
  • 33 Schütz T, Bechstein W O, Neuhaus P, Lochs H, Plauth M. Clinical practice of nutrition in acute liver failure - a European survey.  Clin Nutr. 2004;  23 975-982
  • 34 Keohane P P, Attrill H, Grimble G, Spiller R, Frost P, Silk D B. Enteral nutrition in malnourished patients with hepatic cirrhosis and acute encephalopathy.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1983;  7 346-350
  • 35 Garrison R N, Cryer H M, Howard D A, Polk Jr H C. Clarification of risk factors for abdominal operations in patients with hepatic cirrhosis.  Ann Surg. 1984;  199 648-655
  • 36 Fan S T, Lo C M, Lai E C, Chu K M, Liu C L, Wong J. Perioperative nutritional support in patients undergoing hepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma.  N Engl J Med. 1994;  331 1547-1552
  • 37 Kanematsu T, Koyanagi N, Matsumata T, Kitano S, Takenaka K, Sugimachi K. Lack of preventive effect of branched-chain amino acid solution on postoperative hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis: a randomized, prospective trial.  Surgery. 1988;  104 482-488
  • 38 Reilly J, Mehta R, Teperman L. et al . Nutritional support after liver transplantation: a randomized prospective study.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990;  14 386-391
  • 39 Wicks C, Somasundaram S, Bjarnason I. et al . Comparison of enteral feeding and total parenteral nutrition after liver transplantation.  Lancet. 1994;  344 837-840
  • 40 Hasse J M, Blue L S, Liepa G U. et al . Early enteral nutrition support in patients undergoing liver transplantation.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1995;  19 437-443
  • 41 Müller M J, Lautz H U, Plogmann B, Burger M, Korber J, Schmidt F W. Energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in patients with cirrhosis: the impact of cause, clinical staging and nutritional state.  Hepatology. 1992;  15 782-794
  • 42 Müller M J, Böttcher J, Selberg O. et al . Hypermetabolism in clinically stable patients with liver cirrhosis.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;  69 1194-1201
  • 43 Plauth M, Schutz T, Buckendahl D P. et al . Weight gain after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt is associated with improvement in body composition in malnourished patients with cirrhosis and hypermetabolism.  J Hepatol. 2004;  40 228-233
  • 44 Nielsen K, Kondrup J, Martinsen L. et al . Long-term oral refeeding of patients with cirrhosis of the liver.  Br J Nutr. 1995;  74 557-567
  • 45 Nielsen K, Martinsen L, Dossing H, Stilling B, Kondrup J. Energy expenditure measured by the doubly labeled water method during hyperalimentation of patients with liver cirrhosis.  J Hepatol. 1991;  13 S151
  • 46 Campillo B, Bories P N, Devanlay M, Sommer F, Wirquin E, Fouet P. The thermogenic and metabolic effects of food in liver cirrhosis: consequences on the storage of nutrients and the hormonal counterregulatory response.  Metabolism. 1992;  41 476-482
  • 47 Müller M J, Willmann O, Rieger A. et al . Mechanism of insulin resistance associated with liver cirrhosis.  Gastroenterology. 1992;  102 2033-2041
  • 48 Riggio O, Merli M, Romiti A. et al . Early postprandial energy expenditure and macronutrient use after a mixed meal in cirrhotic patients.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992;  16 445-450
  • 49 Campillo B, Fouet P, Bonnet J C, Atlan G. Submaximal oxygen consumption in liver cirrhosis. Evidence of severe functional aerobic impairment.  J Hepatol. 1990;  10 163-167
  • 50 DeLissio M, Goodyear L J, Fuller S, Krawitt E L, Devlin J T. Effects of treadmill exercise on fuel metabolism in hepatic cirrhosis.  J Appl Physiol. 1991;  70 210-215
  • 51 Müller M J, Dettmer A, Tettenborn M. et al . Metabolic, endocrine, haemodynamic and pulmonary responses to different types of exercise in individuals with normal or reduced liver function.  Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1996;  74 246-257
  • 52 Plevak D J, DiCecco S R, Wiesner R H. et al . Nutritional support for liver transplantation: identifying caloric and protein requirements.  Mayo Clin Proc. 1994;  69 225-230
  • 53 Weimann A, Kuse E R, Bechstein W O, Neuberger J M, Plauth M, Pichlmayr R. Perioperative parenteral and enteral nutrition for patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation. Results of a questionnaire from 16 European transplant units.  Transpl Int. 1998;  11, Suppl 1 S289-S291
  • 54 Plank L D, Metzger D J, McCall J L. et al . Sequential changes in the metabolic response to orthotopic liver transplantation during the first year after surgery.  Ann Surg. 2001;  234 245-255
  • 55 Perseghin G, Mazzaferro V, Benedini S. et al . Resting energy expenditure in diabetic and nondiabetic patients with liver cirrhosis: relation with insulin sensitivity and effect of liver transplantation and immunosuppressive therapy.  Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;  76 541-548
  • 56 Merli M, Erikson S, Hagenfeldt H, Wahren J. Splanchnic and peripheral exchange of FFA in patients with liver cirrhosis.  Hepatology. 2006;  3 348-355
  • 57 Merli M, Riggio O, Romiti A. et al . Basal energy production rate and substrate use in stable cirrhotic patients.  Hepatology. 1990;  12 106-112
  • 58 Owen O E, Trapp V E, Reichard Jr G A. et al . Nature and quantity of fuels consumed in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis.  J Clin Invest. 1983;  72 1821-1832
  • 59 Petrides A S, DeFronzo R A. Glucose and insulin metabolism in cirrhosis.  J Hepatol. 1989;  8 107-114
  • 60 Selberg O, Burchert W, Hoff J van den. et al . Insulin resistance in liver cirrhosis. Positron-emission tomography scan analysis of skeletal muscle glucose metabolism.  J Clin Invest. 1993;  91 1897-1902
  • 61 Bianchi G, Marchesini G, Zoli M, Bugianesi E, Fabbri A, Pisi E. Prognostic significance of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis.  Hepatology. 1994;  20 119-125
  • 62 Müller M J, Pirlich M, Balks H J, Selberg O. Glucose intolerance in liver cirrhosis: role of hepatic and non-hepatic influences.  Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1994;  32 749-758
  • 63 Wolfe R R, Allsop J R, Burke J F. Glucose metabolism in man: responses to intravenous glucose infusion.  Metabolism. 1979;  28 210-220
  • 64 Golling M, Lehmann T, Senninger N, Herfarth C, Otto G. Tacrolimus reduction improves glucose metabolism and insulin secretion after liver transplantation.  Transplant Proc. 1996;  28 3180-3182
  • 65 Druml W, Fischer M, Pidlich J, Lenz K. Fat elimination in chronic hepatic failure: long-chain vs medium-chain triglycerides.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;  61 812-817
  • 66 Müller M, Rieger A, Willmann O, Lautz H U, Balks H, Mühlen A von zur. Metabolic responses to lipid infusions in patients with liver cirrhosis.  Clin Nutr. 1992;  11 193-206
  • 67 Michel H, Bories P, Aubin J P, Pomier-Layrargues G, Bauret P, Bellet-Herman H. Treatment of acute hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotics with a branched-chain amino acids enriched versus a conventional amino acids mixture. A controlled study of 70 patients.  Liver. 1985;  5 282-289
  • 68 Wahren J, Denis J, Desurmont P. et al . Is intravenous administration of branched chain amino acids effective in the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy? A multicenter study.  Hepatology. 1983;  3 475-480
  • 69 Holm E, Leweling H, Saeger H, Arnold V, Gladisch R. Exogenous lipids as a caloric support in hepatic failure. In: Francavilla A, Panella C, Leo A Di, Thiel D van (eds) Liver and hormones. New York; Raven Press 1987: 125-144
  • 70 Naylor C D, O'Rourke K, Detsky A S, Baker J P. Parenteral nutrition with branched-chain amino acids in hepatic encephalopathy. A meta-analysis.  Gastroenterology. 1989;  97 1033-1042
  • 71 Mendenhall C, Bongiovanni G, Goldberg S. et al . VA Cooperative Study on Alcoholic Hepatitis. III: Changes in protein-calorie malnutrition associated with 30 days of hospitalization with and without enteral nutritional therapy.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1985;  9 590-596
  • 72 Nielsen K, Kondrup J, Martinsen L, Stilling B, Wikman B. Nutritional assessment and adequacy of dietary intake in hospitalized patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis.  Br J Nutr. 1993;  69 665-679
  • 73 Swart G R, Berg J W van den, Vuure J K van, Tietveld T, Wattimena D, Frenkel M. Minimum protein requirements in liver cirrhosis determined by nitrogen balance measurements at three levels of protein intake.  Clin Nutr. 1989;  8 329-336
  • 74 Fischer J E, Rosen H M, Ebeid A M, James J H, Keane J M, Soeters P B. The effect of normalization of plasma amino acids on hepatic encephalopathy in man.  Surgery. 1976;  80 77-91
  • 75 Freund H, Dienstag J, Lehrich J. et al . Infusion of branched-chain enriched amino acid solution in patients with hepatic encephalopathy.  Ann Surg. 1982;  196 209-220
  • 76 Holm E, Striebel K, Meisinger E, Haux P, Langhans W, Becker H. Aminosäurengemische zur parenteralen Ernährung bei Leberinsuffizienz.  Infusionstherapie. 1978;  5 274-292
  • 77 Cerra F B, Cheung N K, Fischer J E. et al . Disease-specific amino acid infusion (F080) in hepatic encephalopathy: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial.  JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1985;  9 288-295
  • 78 Fiaccadori F, Ginelli F, Pedretti G, Pelosi G, Sacchini D, Zeneroli M. Branched-chain enriched amino acid solutions in the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: A controlled trial.  Ital J Gastroenterology. 1985;  17 5-10
  • 79 Rossi-Fanelli F, Riggio O, Cangiano C. et al . Branched-chain amino acids vs lactulose in the treatment of hepatic coma: a controlled study.  Dig Dis Sci. 1982;  27 929-935
  • 80 Strauss E, Santos W Dos, Silva E Da. Treatment of hepatic encephalopathy: a randomized clinical trial comparing a branched chain enriched amino acid solution to oral neomycin.  Nutr Supp Services. 1986;  6 18-21
  • 81 Vilstrup H, Gluud C, Hardt F. et al . Branched chain enriched amino acid versus glucose treatment of hepatic encephalopathy. A double-blind study of 65 patients with cirrhosis.  J Hepatol. 1990;  10 291-296
  • 82 Als-Nielsen B, Koretz R L, Kjaergard L L, Gluud C. Branched-chain amino acids for hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003 CD001939
  • 83 Plank L D, McCall J L, Gane E J. et al . Pre- and postoperative immunonutrition in patients undergoing liver transplantation: a pilot study of safety and efficacy.  Clin Nutr. 2005;  24 288-296
  • 84 Singer P, Cohen J, Cynober L. Effect of nutritional state of brain-dead organ donor on transplantation.  Nutrition. 2001;  17 948-952
  • 85 Prijatmoko D, Strauss B J, Lambert J R. et al . Early detection of protein depletion in alcoholic cirrhosis: role of body composition analysis.  Gastroenterology. 1993;  105 1839-1845
  • 86 Garrett-Laster M, Russell R M, Jacques P F. Impairment of taste and olfaction in patients with cirrhosis: the role of vitamin A.  Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1984;  38 203-214
  • 87 Weismann K, Christensen E, Dreyer V. Zinc supplementation in alcoholic cirrhosis. A double-blind clinical trial.  Acta Med Scand. 1979;  205 361-366
  • 88 Aggett P. Severe Zinc defiency. In: Mills C (ed) Zinc in Human Biology. Berlin; Springer 1989: 259-274
  • 89 Barry M, Keeling P W, Feely J. Tissue zinc status and drug elimination in patients with chronic liver disease.  Clin Sci (Lond). 1990;  78 547-549
  • 90 Halsted J A, Hackley B, Rudzki C, Smith Jr J C. Plasma zinc concentration in liver diseases. Comparison with normal controls and certain other chronic diseases.  Gastroenterology. 1968;  54 1098-1105
  • 91 Thuluvath P J, Triger D R. Selenium in chronic liver disease.  J Hepatol. 1992;  14 176-182
  • 92 Grungreiff K, Abicht K, Kluge M. et al . Clinical studies on zinc in chronic liver diseases.  Z Gastroenterol. 1988;  26 409-415
  • 93 Rijt C C Van der, Schalm S W, Schat H, Foeken K, Jong G De. Overt hepatic encephalopathy precipitated by zinc deficiency.  Gastroenterology. 1991;  100 1114-1118
  • 94 Bresci G, Parisi G, Banti S. Management of hepatic encephalopathy with oral zinc supplementation: a long-term treatment.  Eur J Med. 1993;  2 414-416
  • 95 Reding P, Duchateau J, Bataille C. Oral zinc supplementation improves hepatic encephalopathy. Results of a randomised controlled trial.  Lancet. 1984;  2 493-495
  • 96 Riggio O, Ariosto F, Merli M. et al . Short-term oral zinc supplementation does not improve chronic hepatic encephalopathy. Results of a double-blind crossover trial.  Dig Dis Sci. 1991;  36 1204-1208
  • 97 Marchesini G, Fabbri A, Bianchi G, Brizi M, Zoli M. Zinc supplementation and amino acid-nitrogen metabolism in patients with advanced cirrhosis.  Hepatology. 1996;  23 1084-1092
  • 98 Mills P R, Shenkin A, Anthony R S. et al . Assessment of nutritional status and in vivo immune responses in alcoholic liver disease.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1983;  38 849-859
  • 99 Shenker S, Halff G. Nutritional therapy in alcoholic liver disease.  Sem Liver Dis. 1993;  13 196-209
  • 100 Lieber C S. Alcohol, liver, and nutrition.  J Am Coll Nutr. 1991;  10 602-632
  • 101 Lindor K D. Management of osteopenia of liver disease with special emphasis on primary biliary cirrhosis.  Semin Liver Dis. 1993;  13 367-373
  • 102 Crippin J S, Jorgensen R A, Dickson E R, Lindor K D. Hepatic osteodystrophy in primary biliary cirrhosis: effects of medical treatment.  Am J Gastroenterol. 1994;  89 47-50
  • 103 Lundbom N, Laurila O, Laurila S. Central pontine myelinolysis after correction of chronic hyponatraemia.  Lancet. 1993;  342 247-248
  • 104 McDiarmid S V, Colonna J O, Shaked A, Ament M E, Busuttil R W. A comparison of renal function in cyclosporine- and FK-506-treated patients after primary orthotopic liver transplantation.  Transplantation. 1993;  56 847-853
  • 105 Pomposelli J J, Pomfret E A, Burns D L. et al . Life-threatening hypophosphatemia after right hepatic lobectomy for live donor adult liver transplantation.  Liver Transpl. 2001;  7 637-642
  • 106 Smyrniotis V, Kostopanagiotou G, Katsarelias D, Theodoraki K, Hondros K, Kouskouni E. Changes of serum phosphorus levels in hepatic resections and implications on patients' outcomes.  Int Surg. 2003;  88 100-104
  • 107 Tan H P, Madeb R, Kovach S J. et al . Hypophosphatemia after 95 right-lobe living-donor hepatectomies for liver transplantation is not a significant source of morbidity.  Transplantation. 2003;  76 1085-1088
  • 108 O'Grady J G, Schalm S W, Williams R. Acute liver failure: redefining the syndromes.  Lancet. 1993;  342 273-275
  • 109 Ganong W. Review of Medical Physiology. East Norwalk; Appleton & Lange 1991
  • 110 Schneeweiss B, Pammer J, Ratheiser K. et al . Energy metabolism in acute hepatic failure.  Gastroenterology. 1993;  105 1515-1521
  • 111 Walsh T S, Wigmore S J, Hopton P, Richardson R, Lee A. Energy expenditure in acetaminophen-induced fulminant hepatic failure.  Crit Care Med. 2000;  28 649-654
  • 112 Samson R, Trey C, Timme A, Saunders S. Fulminating hepatitis with recurrent hypoglycemia and hemorrhage.  Gastroenterology. 1967;  53 291-300
  • 113 Vilstrup H, Iversen J, Tygstrup N. Glucoregulation in acute liver failure.  Eur J Clin Invest. 1986;  16 193-197
  • 114 Bernuau J, Rueff B, Benhamou J P. Fulminant and subfulminant liver failure: definitions and causes.  Semin Liver Dis. 1986;  6 97-106
  • 115 O'Grady J G, Portmann B, Williams R. Fulminant hepatic failure. In: Schoff L, Schiff ER (eds) Diseases of the liver. Philadelphia; Lippincott 1993: 1077-1090
  • 116 Berghe G Van den, Wouters P, Weekers F. et al . Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients.  N Engl J Med. 2001;  345 1359-1367
  • 117 Lin B, Ginsberg M D, Busto R. Hyperglycemic exacerbation of neuronal damage following forebrain ischemia: microglial, astrocytic and endothelial alterations.  Acta Neuropathol (Berl). 1998;  96 610-620
  • 118 Delamaire M, Maugendre D, Moreno M, Goff M C Le, Allannic H, Genetet B. Impaired leucocyte functions in diabetic patients.  Diabet Med. 1997;  14 29-34
  • 119 Ohyanagi H, Nomura H, Nishimatsu S, Usami M, Kasahara H. The liver and nutrient metabolism. In: Payne-James J, Grimble G, Silk D (eds) Artificial nutrition and support in clinical practice. London; Edward Arnold 1995: 59-71
  • 120 Mahler H, Pasi A, Kramer J M. et al . Fulminant liver failure in association with the emetic toxin of Bacillus cereus.  N Engl J Med. 1997;  336 1142-1148
  • 121 Schafer D F, Sorrell M F. Power failure, liver failure.  N Engl J Med. 1997;  336 1173-1174
  • 122 Clemmesen J O, Hoy C E, Kondrup J, Ott P. Splanchnic metabolism of fuel substrates in acute liver failure.  J Hepatol. 2000;  33 941-948
  • 123 Forbes A, Wicks C, Marshall W, Johnson P, Forsey P, Williams R. Nutritional support in fulminant hepatic failure: the safety of lipid solutions.  Gut. 1987;  28 1347-1349
  • 124 Kleinberger G. Parenterale Ernährung bei Leberinsuffizienz.  Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1986;  116 545-549
  • 125 Clemmesen J O, Kondrup J, Ott P. Splanchnic and leg exchange of amino acids and ammonia in acute liver failure.  Gastroenterology. 2000;  118 1131-1139
  • 126 Record C O, Buxton B, Chase R A, Curzon G, Murray-Lyon I M, Williams R. Plasma and brain amino acids in fulminant hepatic failure and their relationship to hepatic encephalopathy.  Eur J Clin Invest. 1976;  6 387-394
  • 127 Rosen H M, Yoshimura N, Hodgman J M, Fischer J E. Plasma amino acid patterns in hepatic encephalopathy of differing etiology.  Gastroenterology. 1977;  72 483-487
  • 128 Fryden A, Weiland O, Martensson J. Successful treatment of hepatic coma probably caused by acute infectious hepatitis with balanced solution of amino acids.  Scand J Infect Dis. 1982;  14 177-180
  • 129 Hensle T, Blackburn G L, O'Donnell T, McDermott Jr W V. Intravenous feeding in hepatic failure.  Surg Forum. 1973;  24 388-391
  • 130 Schmidt L E, Dalhoff K. Serum phosphate is an early predictor of outcome in severe acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity.  Hepatology. 2002;  36 659-665