Download PDF
Journal of Pediatric Neuroradiology 2016; 05(03): 164-184
DOI: 10.1055/s-0036-1593420
Review Article
Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart • New York

Imaging of the Pediatric Temporal Bone Abnormalities

Mehmet Gencturk
1   Division of Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
,
H. G. Tore
1   Division of Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
,
D. R. Nascene
1   Division of Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
,
C. L. Truwit
1   Division of Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
03 October 2016 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Abnormalities of the temporal bone in children may be associated with important morbidity. Congenital, undiagnosed hearing loss occurring can impair normal cognitive development and should therefore be diagnosed and treated as soon as possible. The most common indication of temporal bone imaging in childhood is congenital hearing loss. Both high-resolution computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are helpful in diagnosis of a variety of congenital, inflammatory, traumatic, and neoplastic disorder.

Keywords

temporal bone - pediatric - congenital
 

  • References

  • 1 Nauer CB, Rieke A, Zubler C, Candreia C, Arnold A, Senn P. Low-dose temporal bone CT in infants and young children: effective dose and image quality. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2011; 32 (8) 1375-1380
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Husstedt HW, Prokop M, Dietrich B, Becker H. Low-dose high-resolution CT of the petrous bone. J Neuroradiol 2000; 27 (2) 87-92
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Mirro AE, Brady SL, Kaufman RA. Full dose-reduction potential of statistical iterative reconstruction for head CT protocols in a predominantly pediatric population. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2016; 37 (7) 1199-1205
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 He J, Zu Y, Wang Q, Ma X. Improving depiction of temporal bone anatomy with low-radiation dose CT by an integrated circuit detector in pediatric patients: a preliminary study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2014; 93 (28) e325
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Vazquez E, Castellote A, Piqueras J , et al. Imaging of complications of acute mastoiditis in children. Radiographics 2003; 23 (2) 359-372
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Marioni G, de Filippis C, Tregnaghi A, Marchese-Ragona R, Staffieri A. Bezold's abscess in children: case report and review of the literature. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2001; 61 (2) 173-177
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Gradenigo G. Uber die Paralyse des N. Abduzens bei Otitis. Arch Ohrenheilk 1907; 74 (1) 149-158
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Schmalfuss IM. Petrous apex. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2009; 19 (3) 367-391
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Connor SE, Leung R, Natas S. Imaging of the petrous apex: a pictorial review. Br J Radiol 2008; 81 (965) 427-435
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Mafee MF, Singleton EL, Valvassori GE, Espinosa GA, Kumar A, Aimi K. Acute otomastoiditis and its complications: role of CT. Radiology 1985; 155 (2) 391-397
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Mafee MF, Levin BC, Applebaum EL, Campos M, James CF. Cholesteatoma of the middle ear and mastoid. A comparison of CT scan and operative findings. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1988; 21 (2) 265-293
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 O'Donoghue GM, Bates GJ, Anslow P, Rothera MP. The predictive value of high resolution computerized tomography in chronic suppurative ear disease. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1987; 12 (2) 89-96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Alzoubi FQ, Odat HA, Al-Balas HA, Saeed SR. The role of preoperative CT scan in patients with chronic otitis media. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2009; 266 (6) 807-809
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Isaacson B. Cholesterol granuloma and other petrous apex lesions. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2015; 48 (2) 361-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Iannella G, Stasolla A, Pasquariello B, Re M, Magliulo G. Tympanomastoid cholesterol granuloma: radiological and intraoperative findings of blood source connection. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2016; 273 (9) 2395-2401
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Bonneville F, Savatovsky J, Chiras J. Imaging of cerebellopontine angle lesions: an update. Part 2: intra-axial lesions, skull base lesions that may invade the CPA region, and non-enhancing extra-axial lesions. Eur Radiol 2007; 17 (11) 2908-2920
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Moran Jr WB. Cholesteatoma. In: English GE, ed. Otolaryngology. New York: Harper & Row; 1980
    Google Scholar
  • 18 Fisch U. Tympanoplasty, Mastoidectomy, and Stapes Surgery. New York: Thieme; 1994: 146
    Google Scholar
  • 19 Karmody CS, Byahatti SV, Blevins N, Valtonen H, Northrop C. The origin of congenital cholesteatoma. Am J Otol 1998; 19 (3) 292-297
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Michaels L. An epidermoid formation in the developing middle ear: possible source of cholesteatoma. J Otolaryngol 1986; 15 (3) 169-174
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Teed RW. Cholesteatoma verum tympani. Arch Otolaryngol 1936; 24: 455-462
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Magliulo G. Petrous bone cholesteatoma: clinical longitudinal study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2007; 264 (2) 115-120
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Magliulo G, Terranova G, Sepe C, Cordeschi S, Cristofar P. Petrous bone cholesteatoma and facial paralysis. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1998; 23 (3) 253-258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Axon PR, Fergie N, Saeed SR, Temple RH, Ramsden RT. Petrosal cholesteatoma: management considerations for minimizing morbidity. Am J Otol 1999; 20 (4) 505-510
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Akyildiz N, Akbay C, Ozgïrgïn ON, Bayramoglu I, Sayin N. The role of retraction pockets in cholesteatoma development: an ultrastructural study. Ear Nose Throat J 1993; 72 (3) 210-212
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Vercruysse JP, De Foer B, Pouillon M, Somers T, Casselman J, Offeciers E. The value of diffusion-weighted MR imaging in the diagnosis of primary acquired and residual cholesteatoma: a surgical verified study of 100 patients. Eur Radiol 2006; 16 (7) 1461-1467
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Fitzek C, Weissmann M, Speckter H , et al. Anatomy of brain-stem white-matter tracts shown by diffusion-weighted imaging. Neuroradiology 2001; 43 (11) 953-960
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Nash R, Kalan A, Lingam RK, Singh A. The role of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in assessing residual/recurrent cholesteatoma after canal wall down mastoidectomy. Clin Otolaryngol 2016; 41 (3) 307-309
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 von Kalle T, Amrhein P, Koitschev A. Non-echoplanar diffusion-weighted MRI in children and adolescents with cholesteatoma: reliability and pitfalls in comparison to middle ear surgery. Pediatr Radiol 2015; 45 (7) 1031-1038
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Rowlands S, Hooper R, Hughes R, Burney P. The epidemiology and treatment of Bell's palsy in the UK. Eur J Neurol 2002; 9 (1) 63-67
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Hussain SSM. Facial paralysis in childhood. In: Gleeson M, ed. Scott-Brown's Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. 7th ed. London, UK: Oxford University Press; 2008: 1052-1062
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Taverner D. Cortisone treatment of Bell's palsy. Lancet 1954; 267 (6847) 1052-1054
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Furuta Y, Ohtani F, Aizawa H, Fukuda S, Kawabata H, Bergström T. Varicella-zoster virus reactivation is an important cause of acute peripheral facial paralysis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005; 24 (2) 97-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Michaels L. Histopathological changes in the temporal bone in Bell's palsy. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1990; 470: 114-117 , discussion 118
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Tien R, Dillon WP, Jackler RK. Contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the facial nerve in 11 patients with Bell's palsy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990; 11 (4) 735-741
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Gebarski SS, Telian SA, Niparko JK. Enhancement along the normal facial nerve in the facial canal: MR imaging and anatomic correlation. Radiology 1992; 183 (2) 391-394
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Ginat D, Moonis G, Mukherji S. Imaging the postoperative neck. In: Ginat DT, Westesson PLA, eds. Atlas of Postsurgical Neuroradiology. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer; 2012: 373-434
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Klein MA, Kelly JK, Eggleston D. Recognizing tympanostomy tubes on temporal bone CT: typical and atypical appearances. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988; 150 (6) 1411-1414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Groblewski JC, Harley EH. Medial migration of tympanostomy tubes: an overlooked complication. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2006; 70 (10) 1707-1714
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Mukherji SK, Mancuso AA, Kotzur IM , et al. CT of the temporal bone: findings after mastoidectomy, ossicular reconstruction, and cochlear implantation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 163 (6) 1467-1471
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Mehta RP, Harris JP. Mastoid obliteration. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2006; 39 (6) 1129-1142
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Shpizner BA, Holliday RA, Roland JT, Cohen NL, Waltzman SB, Shapiro WH. Postoperative imaging of the multichannel cochlear implant. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995; 16 (7) 1517-1524
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Gu P, Jiang Y, Gao X , et al. Effects of cochlear implant surgical technique on post-operative electrode impedance. Acta Otolaryngol 2016; 136 (7) 677-681
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Kong WJ, Cheng HM, Ma H, Wang YJ, Han P. Evaluation of the implanted cochlear implant electrode by CT scanning with three-dimensional reconstruction. Acta Otolaryngol 2012; 132 (2) 116-122
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Shin JJ, Kenna M. Cochlear implantation in children with or without a history of frequent otitis media: chance of post-implant acute otitis media and complications. In: Shin JJ, Hartnick CJ, Randolph GW, eds. Evidence-Based Otolaryngology. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 2008: 197-203
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Wagner F, Wimmer W, Leidolt L , et al. Significant artifact reduction at 1.5T and 3T MRI by the use of a cochlear implant with removable magnet: an Experimental Human Cadaver Study. PLoS ONE 2015; 10 (7) e0132483
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Schuknecht HF. Otosclerosis surgery. In: Nadol Jr JB, Schuknecht HF, eds. Surgery of the Ear and Temporal Bone. New York, NY: Raven; 1993: 223-244
    Google Scholar
  • 48 Stone JA, Mukherji SK, Jewett BS, Carrasco VN, Castillo M. CT evaluation of prosthetic ossicular reconstruction procedures: what the otologist needs to know. Radiographics 2000; 20 (3) 593-605
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Wehrs RE. Homograft ossicles in tympanoplasty. Laryngoscope 1982; 92 (5) 540-546
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Watanabe K, Kida W. Images in clinical medicine. Battle's sign. N Engl J Med 2012; 367 (12) 1135
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Johnson F, Semaan MT, Megerian CA. Temporal bone fracture: evaluation and management in the modern era. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2008; 41 (3) 597-618 , x
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Ishman SL, Friedland DR. Temporal bone fractures: traditional classification and clinical relevance. Laryngoscope 2004; 114 (10) 1734-1741
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Kelly K, Tami T. Temporal bone and skull base trauma. In: Jackler R, Brackmann D, eds. Neurotology. St Louis, MO: Mosby; 1994: 1127
    Google Scholar
  • 54 Meriot P, Veillon F, Garcia JF , et al. CT appearances of ossicular injuries. Radiographics 1997; 17 (6) 1445-1454
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Swartz JD, Zwillenberg S, Berger AS. Acquired disruptions of the incudostapedial articulation: diagnosis with CT. Radiology 1989; 171 (3) 779-781
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Patel A, Groppo E. Management of temporal bone trauma. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr 2010; 3 (2) 105-113
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Coker NJ. Management of traumatic injuries to the facial nerve. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 1991; 24 (1) 215-227
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Dahiya R, Keller JD, Litofsky NS, Bankey PE, Bonassar LJ, Megerian CA. Temporal bone fractures: otic capsule sparing versus otic capsule violating clinical and radiographic considerations. J Trauma 1999; 47 (6) 1079-1083
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Baráth K, Huber AM, Stämpfli P, Varga Z, Kollias S. Neuroradiology of cholesteatomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2011; 32 (2) 221-229
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Nardis PF, Teramo M, Giunta S, Bellelli A. Unusual cholesteatoma shell: CT findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1988; 12 (6) 1084-1085
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 La Fata V, McLean N, Wise SK, DelGaudio JM, Hudgins PA. CSF leaks: correlation of high-resolution CT and multiplanar reformations with intraoperative endoscopic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008; 29 (3) 536-541
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Sbeity S, Abella A, Arcand P, Quintal MC, Saliba I. Temporal bone rhabdomyosarcoma in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2007; 71 (5) 807-814
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Gidley PW, Thompson CR, Roberts DB, DeMonte F, Hanna EY. The oncology of otology. Laryngoscope 2012; 122 (2) 393-400
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Lyos AT, Goepfert H, Luna MA, Jaffe N, Malpica A. Soft tissue sarcoma of the head and neck in children and adolescents. Cancer 1996; 77 (1) 193-200
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Turner JH, Richmon JD. Head and neck rhabdomyosarcoma: a critical analysis of population-based incidence and survival data. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2011; 145 (6) 967-973
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Wiatrak BJ, Pensak ML. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the ear and temporal bone. Laryngoscope 1989; 99 (11) 1188-1192
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Yousem DM, Lexa FJ, Bilaniuk LT, Zimmerman RI. Rhabdomyosarcomas in the head and neck: MR imaging evaluation. Radiology 1990; 177 (3) 683-686
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Vasama JP. Surgery for external auditory canal exostoses: a report of 182 operations. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 2003; 65 (4) 189-192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Stenfors LE, Sade J, Hellström S, Anniko M, Folkow L. Exostoses and cavernous venous formation in the external auditory canal of the hooded seal as a functional physiological organ. Acta Otolaryngol 2000; 120 (8) 940-943
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Carbone PN, Nelson BL. External auditory osteoma. Head Neck Pathol 2012; 6 (2) 244-246
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Yan Y, Dong S, Hao Q , et al. Clinical analysis on surgical management of type III external auditory canal cholesteatoma: a report of 12 cases. Acta Otolaryngol 2016; 136 (10) 1006-1010
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Propp JM, McCarthy BJ, Davis FG, Preston-Martin S. Descriptive epidemiology of vestibular schwannomas. Neuro-oncol 2006; 8 (1) 1-11
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Martuza RL, Ojemann RG. Bilateral acoustic neuromas: clinical aspects, pathogenesis, and treatment. Neurosurgery 1982; 10 (1) 1-12
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Valavanis A, Schubiger O, Naidich TP. Clinical Imaging of the Cerebello-pontine Angle. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1987
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Möller A, Hatam A, Olivecrona H. Diagnosis of acoustic neuroma with computed tomography. Neuroradiology 1978; 17 (1) 25-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Castillo R, Watts C, Pulliam M. Sudden hemorrhage in an acoustic neuroma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1982; 56 (3) 417-419
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Somers T, Casselman J, de Ceulaer G, Govaerts P, Offeciers E. Prognostic value of magnetic resonance imaging findings in hearing preservation surgery for vestibular schwannoma. Otol Neurotol 2001; 22 (1) 87-94
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Woods CI, Strasnick B, Jackson CG. Surgery for glomus tumors: the Otology Group experience. Laryngoscope 1993; 103 (11 Pt 2, suppl 60): 65-70
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Al-Mefty O, Teixeira A. Complex tumors of the glomus jugulare: criteria, treatment, and outcome. J Neurosurg 2002; 97 (6) 1356-1366
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Spector GJ, Sobol S, Thawley SE, Maisel RH, Ogura JH. Panel discussion: glomus jugulare tumors of the temporal bone. Patterns of invasion in the temporal bone. Laryngoscope 1979; 89 (10 Pt 1): 1628-1639
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Yoo H, Jung HW, Yang HJ. Jugular foramen schwannomas: surgical approaches and outcome of treatment. Skull Base Surg 1999; 9 (4) 243-252
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Dichiro G, Fisher RL, Nelson KB. The jugular foramen. J Neurosurg 1964; 21: 447-460
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Olsen WL, Dillon WP, Kelly WM, Norman D, Brant-Zawadzki M, Newton TH. MR imaging of paragangliomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987; 148 (1) 201-204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Hesselink JR, Davis KR, Taveras JM. Selective arteriography of glomus tympanicum and jugulare tumors: techniques, normal and pathologic arterial anatomy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1981; 2 (4) 289-297
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Boston M, Derkay CS. Langerhans' cell histiocytosis of the temporal bone and skull base. Am J Otolaryngol 2002; 23 (4) 246-248
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Bayazit Y, Sirikci A, Bayaram M, Kanlikama M, Demir A, Bakir K. Eosinophilic granuloma of the temporal bone. Auris Nasus Larynx 2001; 28 (1) 99-102
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 de Brito Macedo Ferreira LM, de Carvalho JD, Pereira ST, Tavares MG. Histiocytosis X of the temporal bone. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol 2006; 72 (4) 575
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Martini A, Aimoni C, Trevisani M, Marangoni P. Langerhans' cell histiocytosis: report of a case with temporal localization. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2000; 55 (1) 51-56
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Azouz EM, Saigal G, Rodriguez MM, Podda A. Langerhans' cell histiocytosis: pathology, imaging and treatment of skeletal involvement. Pediatr Radiol 2005; 35 (2) 103-115
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Chu T. Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Australas J Dermatol 2001; 42 (4) 237-242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Surico G, Muggeo P, Muggeo V , et al. Ear involvement in childhood Langerhans' cell histiocytosis. Head Neck 2000; 22 (1) 42-47
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Lallemant B, Fayoux P, Nelken B, Leroy X, Vaneecloo FM. Management of head and neck Langerhan's cell histiocytosis in children [in French]. Ann Otolaryngol Chir Cervicofac 2003; 120 (1) 30-39
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Hadjigeorgi C, Parpounas C, Zarmakoupis P, Lafoyianni S. Eosinophilic granuloma of the temporal bone: radiological approach in the pediatric patient. Pediatr Radiol 1990; 20 (7) 546-549
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Marioni G, De Filippis C, Stramare R, Carli M, Staffieri A. Langerhans' cell histiocytosis: temporal bone involvement. J Laryngol Otol 2001; 115 (10) 839-841
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Bellet PS, Benton Jr C, Matt BH, Myer III CM. The evaluation of ear canal, middle ear, temporal bone, and cerebellopontine angle masses in infants, children, and adolescents. Adv Pediatr 1992; 39: 167-205
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Benton C, Bellet PS. Imaging of congenital anomalies of the temporal bone. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2000; 10 (1) 35-53 , vii–viii
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Weerda H. Classification of congenital deformities of the auricle. Facial Plast Surg 1988; 5 (5) 385-388
    Google Scholar
  • 98 Ishimoto S, Ito K, Yamasoba T , et al. Correlation between microtia and temporal bone malformation evaluated using grading systems. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005; 131 (4) 326-329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Digoy GP, Cueva RA. Congenital aural atresia: review of short- and long-term surgical results. Otol Neurotol 2007; 28 (1) 54-60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Kösling S, Omenzetter M, Bartel-Friedrich S. Congenital malformations of the external and middle ear. Eur J Radiol 2009; 69 (2) 269-279
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Smith SD, Harker LA. Single gene influences on radiologically-detectable malformations of the inner ear. J Commun Disord 1998; 31 (5) 391-408 , quiz 409–410
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Sennaroglu L, Saatci I. A new classification for cochleovestibular malformations. Laryngoscope 2002; 112 (12) 2230-2241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Giesemann AM, Goetz F, Neuburger J, Lenarz T, Lanfermann H. From labyrinthine aplasia to otocyst deformity. Neuroradiology 2010; 52 (2) 147-154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Westerhof JP, Rademaker J, Weber BP, Becker H. Congenital malformations of the inner ear and the vestibulocochlear nerve in children with sensorineural hearing loss: evaluation with CT and MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2001; 25 (5) 719-726
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Phelps PD, King A, Michaels L. Cochlear dysplasia and meningitis. Am J Otol 1994; 15 (4) 551-557
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Slattery III WH, Luxford WM. Cochlear implantation in the congenital malformed cochlea. Laryngoscope 1995; 105 (11) 1184-1187
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Okuno T, Takahashi H, Shibahara Y, Hashida Y, Sando I. Temporal bone histopathologic findings in Alagille's syndrome. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1990; 116 (2) 217-220
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Casselman JW, Offeciers EF, De Foer B, Govaerts P, Kuhweide R, Somers T. CT and MR imaging of congential abnormalities of the inner ear and internal auditory canal. Eur J Radiol 2001; 40 (2) 94-104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Jackler RK, Hwang PH. Enlargement of the cochlear aqueduct: fact or fiction?. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 109 (1) 14-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Casselman JW, Offeciers FE, Govaerts PJ , et al. Aplasia and hypoplasia of the vestibulocochlear nerve: diagnosis with MR imaging. Radiology 1997; 202 (3) 773-781
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Phelps PD, Reardon W, Pembrey M, Bellman S, Luxom L. X-linked deafness, stapes gushers and a distinctive defect of the inner ear. Neuroradiology 1991; 33 (4) 326-330
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar