MR Arthrography of the Shoulder: Technical Update and Clinical Applications

Abstract

Direct MR arthrography of the shoulder is a safe, relatively easy procedure that can increase diagnostic confidence in the evaluation of rotator cuff and labroligamentous disorders compared with conventional MR imaging of the shoulder. Surgeons more often request MR arthrography in younger patients who may have internal impingement or subtle shoulder subluxation rather than obvious cuff rupture, repeated dislocation, or arthropathy. This article describes the advances in glenohumeral injection and MR protocol techniques, imaging pitfalls, anatomical variants, common lesions associated with internal derangement of the shoulder, and MR arthrography of the postoperative shoulder.

Keywords

magnetic resonance arthrography advances - shoulder - rotator cuff - labrum

• References

• 1 Oberholzer J. Die Arthropneumoradiographie bei Habitueller Shulterluxation. Rontgenpraxis 1933; 5: 589-590
• 2 Lindblom K. Arthrography and roentgenography in ruptures of tendons of the shoulder joint. Acta Radiol 1939; 20(6): 548-562
• 3 Giaconi JC, Link TM, Vail TP , et al. Morbidity of direct MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196 (4) 868-874
• 4 Jung JY, Yoon YC, Yi SK, Yoo J, Choe BK. Comparison study of indirect MR arthrography and direct MR arthrography of the shoulder. Skeletal Radiol 2009; 38 (7) 659-667
• 5 Sethi PM, Kingston S, Elattrache N. Accuracy of anterior intra-articular injection of the glenohumeral joint. Arthroscopy 2005; 21 (1) 77-80
• 6 Catalano OA, Manfredi R, Vanzulli A , et al. MR arthrography of the glenohumeral joint: modified posterior approach without imaging guidance. Radiology 2007; 242 (2) 550-554
• 7 Porat S, Leupold JA, Burnett KR, Nottage WM. Reliability of non-imaging-guided glenohumeral joint injection through rotator interval approach in patients undergoing diagnostic MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191 (3) W96–W99
• 8 Peterson JJ, Bancroft LW. History of arthrography. Radiol Clin North Am 2009; 47 (3) 373-386
• 9 Hajek PC, Baker LL, Sartoris DJ, Neumann CH, Resnick D. MR arthrography: anatomic-pathologic investigation. Radiology 1987; 163 (1) 141-147
• 10 Herold T, Bachthaler M, Hamer OW , et al. Indirect MR arthrography of the shoulder: use of abduction and external rotation to detect full- and partial-thickness tears of the supraspinatus tendon. Radiology 2006; 240 (1) 152-160
• 11 Vahlensieck M, Sommer T, Textor J , et al. Indirect MR arthrography: techniques and applications. Eur Radiol 1998; 8 (2) 232-235
• 12 Vahlensieck M, Peterfy CG, Wischer T , et al. Indirect MR arthrography: optimization and clinical applications. Radiology 1996; 200 (1) 249-254
• 13 Van Dyck P, Gielen JL, Veryser J , et al. Tears of the supraspinatus tendon: assessment with indirect magnetic resonance arthrography in 67 patients with arthroscopic correlation. Acta Radiol 2009; 50 (9) 1057-1063
• 14 Steinbach LS, Palmer WE, Schweitzer ME. Special focus session. MR arthrography. Radiographics 2002; 22 (5) 1223-1246
• 15 Tuite MJ, Rubin D. CT and MR arthrography of the glenoid labroligamentous complex. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 1998; 2 (4) 363-376
• 16 de Jesus JO, Parker L, Frangos AJ, Nazarian LN. Accuracy of MRI, MR arthrography, and ultrasound in the diagnosis of rotator cuff tears: a meta-analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009; 192 (6) 1701-1707
• 17 Flannigan B, Kursunoglu-Brahme S, Snyder S, Karzel R, Del Pizzo W, Resnick D. MR arthrography of the shoulder: comparison with conventional MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990; 155 (4) 829-832
• 18 Mutlu S, Mahıroğullari M, Güler O , et al. Anterior glenohumeral instability: classification of pathologies of anteroinferior labroligamentous structures using MR arthrography. Adv Orthop 2013; 2013: 473194
• 19 Magee T. MR versus MR arthrography in detection of supraspinatus tendon tears in patients without previous shoulder surgery. Skeletal Radiol 2014; 43 (1) 43-48
• 20 Magee T. 3-T MRI of the shoulder: is MR arthrography necessary?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009; 192 (1) 86-92
• 21 Major NM, Browne J, Domzalski T, Cothran RL, Helms CA. Evaluation of the glenoid labrum with 3-T MRI: is intraarticular contrast necessary?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196 (5) 1139-1144
• 22 Stoller DW. MR arthrography of the glenohumeral joint. Radiol Clin North Am 1997; 35 (1) 97-116
• 23 Palmer WE. MR arthrography: is it worthwhile?. Top Magn Reson Imaging 1996; 8 (1) 24-43
• 24 Palmer WE, Caslowitz PL, Chew FS. MR arthrography of the shoulder: normal intraarticular structures and common abnormalities. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995; 164 (1) 141-146
• 25 Palmer WE, Brown JH, Rosenthal DI. Labral-ligamentous complex of the shoulder: evaluation with MR arthrography. Radiology 1994; 190 (3) 645-651
• 26 Tirman PF, Palmer WE, Feller JF. MR arthrography of the shoulder. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 1997; 5 (4) 811-839
• 27 Palmer WE. MR arthrography of the rotator cuff and labral-ligamentous complex. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 1997; 18 (4) 278-290
• 28 Chaipat L, Palmer WE. Shoulder magnetic resonance imaging. Clin Sports Med 2006; 25 (3) 371-386 , v v
• 29 Elentuck D, Palmer WE. Direct magnetic resonance arthrography. Eur Radiol 2004; 14 (11) 1956-1967
• 30 Vanhoenacker FM, Vanhoenacker P, Crevits I, Bracke P, De Schepper AM. MR imaging of the shoulder: imaging techniques and anatomy. JBR-BTR 2000; 83 (6) 309-312
• 31 Meister K, Thesing J, Montgomery WJ, Indelicato PA, Walczak S, Fontenot W. MR arthrography of partial thickness tears of the undersurface of the rotator cuff: an arthroscopic correlation. Skeletal Radiol 2004; 33 (3) 136-141
• 32 Park YH, Lee JY, Moon SH , et al. MR arthrography of the labral capsular ligamentous complex in the shoulder: imaging variations and pitfalls. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000; 175 (3) 667-672
• 33 Massengill AD, Seeger LL, Yao L , et al. Labrocapsular ligamentous complex of the shoulder: normal anatomy, anatomic variation, and pitfalls of MR imaging and MR arthrography. Radiographics 1994; 14 (6) 1211-1223
• 34 Beltran J, Rosenberg ZS, Chandnani VP, Cuomo F, Beltran S, Rokito A. Glenohumeral instability: evaluation with MR arthrography. Radiographics 1997; 17 (3) 657-673
• 35 Beltran J, Bencardino J, Mellado J, Rosenberg ZS, Irish RD. MR arthrography of the shoulder: variants and pitfalls. Radiographics 1997; 17 (6) 1403-1412 ; discussion 1412–1415
• 36 Zanetti M, Jost B, Hodler J, Gerber C. MR imaging after rotator cuff repair: full-thickness defects and bursitis-like subacromial abnormalities in asymptomatic subjects. Skeletal Radiol 2000; 29 (6) 314-319
• 37 Beltran LS, Morrison WB, Mohana-Borges AVR, The postoperative shoulder. In: Chung CB, Steinbach LS. , eds. MRI of the Upper Extremity: Shoulder, Elbow, Wrist and Hand. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott; 2010: 367-386
• 38 Sugimoto H, Suzuki K, Mihara K, Kubota H, Tsutsui H. MR arthrography of shoulders after suture-anchor Bankart repair. Radiology 2002; 224 (1) 105-111
• 39 Duc SR, Mengiardi B, Pfirrmann CW, Jost B, Hodler J, Zanetti M. Diagnostic performance of MR arthrography after rotator cuff repair. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 186 (1) 237-241
• 40 Jana M, Srivastava DN, Sharma R , et al. Spectrum of magnetic resonance imaging findings in clinical glenohumeral instability. Indian J Radiol Imaging 2011; 21 (2) 98-106
• 41 Jana M, Gamanagatti S. Magnetic resonance imaging in glenohumeral instability. World J Radiol 2011; 3 (9) 224-232
• 42 Omoumi P, Teixeira P, Lecouvet F, Chung CB. Glenohumeral joint instability. J Magn Reson Imaging 2011; 33 (1) 2-16
• 43 Hall FM. MR arthrography of the posterior labrocapsular complex. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 181 (2) 595; author reply 595–596
• 44 Tung GA, Hou DD. MR arthrography of the posterior labrocapsular complex: relationship with glenohumeral joint alignment and clinical posterior instability. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 180 (2) 369-375
• 45 Jana M, Srivastava DN, Sharma R , et al. Magnetic resonance arthrography for assessing severity of glenohumeral labroligamentous lesions. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong) 2012; 20 (2) 230-235
• 46 Hodler J. Technical errors in MR arthrography. Skeletal Radiol 2008; 37 (1) 9-18
• 47 Zanetti M, Hodler J. Contrast media in MR arthrography of the glenohumeral joint: intra-articular gadopentetate vs saline: preliminary results. Eur Radiol 1997; 7 (4) 498-502
• 48 Kaewlai R, Abujudeh H. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2012; 199 (1) W17-23
• 49 Abujudeh HH, Kosaraju VK, Kaewlai R. Acute adverse reactions to gadopentetate dimeglumine and gadobenate dimeglumine: experience with 32,659 injections. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2010; 194 (2) 430-434
• 50 Davenport MS, Dillman JR, Cohan RH , et al. Effect of abrupt substitution of gadobenate dimeglumine for gadopentetate dimeglumine on rate of allergic-like reactions. Radiology 2013; 266 (3) 773-782
• 51 Rhee RB, Chan KK, Lieu JG, Kim BS, Steinbach LS. MR and CT arthrography of the shoulder. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2012; 16 (1) 3-14
• 52 Haviv B, Thein R, Burg A, Heller S, Bronak S, Velkes S. Chondrolysis of the hip following septic arthritis: a rare complication of magnetic resonance arthrography. Case Rep Orthop 2013; 2013: 840681
• 53 Schulte-Altedorneburg G, Gebhard M, Wohlgemuth WA , et al. MR arthrography: pharmacology, efficacy and safety in clinical trials. Skeletal Radiol 2003; 32 (1) 1-12
• 54 Shang Y, Zheng ZZ, Li X. Direct MR arthrography of the shoulder at 3.  Tesla: optimization of gadolinium concentration. J Magn Reson Imaging 2009; 30 (1) 229-235
• 55 Stecco A, Brambilla M, Puppi AM, Lovisolo M, Boldorini R, Carriero A. Shoulder MR arthrography: in vitro determination of optimal gadolinium dilution as a function of field strength. J Magn Reson Imaging 2007; 25 (1) 200-207
• 56 Wagner SC, Schweitzer ME, Weishaupt D. Temporal behavior of intraarticular gadolinium. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2001; 25 (5) 661-670
• 57 Brenner ML, Morrison WB, Carrino JA , et al. Direct MR arthrography of the shoulder: is exercise prior to imaging beneficial or detrimental?. Radiology 2000; 215 (2) 491-496
• 58 Kassarjian A, Bencardino JT, Palmer WE. MR imaging of the rotator cuff. Radiol Clin North Am 2006; 44 (4) 503-523 , vii–viii
• 59 Rutten MJ, Collins JM, Maresch BJ , et al. Glenohumeral joint injection: a comparative study of ultrasound and fluoroscopically guided techniques before MR arthrography. Eur Radiol 2009; 19 (3) 722-730
• 60 Binkert CA, Zanetti M, Hodler J. Patient's assessment of discomfort during MR arthrography of the shoulder. Radiology 2001; 221 (3) 775-778
• 61 Robbins MI, Anzilotti Jr KF, Katz LD, Lange RC. Patient perception of magnetic resonance arthrography. Skeletal Radiol 2000; 29 (5) 265-269
• 62 Fox MG, Petrey WB, Alford B, Huynh BH, Patrie JT, Anderson MW. Shoulder MR arthrography: intraarticular anesthetic reduces periprocedural pain and major motion artifacts but does not decrease imaging time. Radiology 2012; 262 (2) 576-583
• 63 Choo HJ, Lee SJ, Kim DW, Choi SJ, Lee IS. Intraarticular local anesthesia: can it reduce pain related to MR or CT arthrography of the shoulder?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 200 (4) 860-867
• 64 Piper SL, Kim HT. Comparison of ropivacaine and bupivacaine toxicity in human articular chondrocytes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2008; 90 (5) 986-991
• 65 Jacobs TF, Vansintjan PS, Roels N , et al. The effect of lidocaine on the viability of cultivated mature human cartilage cells: an in vitro study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2011; 19 (7) 1206-1213
• 66 Rao AJ, Johnston TR, Harris AH, Smith RL, Costouros JG. Inhibition of chondrocyte and synovial cell death after exposure to commonly used anesthetics: chondrocyte apoptosis after anesthetics. Am J Sports Med 2014; 42 (1) 50-58
• 67 Hugo III PC, Newberg AH, Newman JS, Wetzner SM. Complications of arthrography. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 1998; 2 (4) 345-348
• 68 Zwar RB, Read JW, Noakes JB. Sonographically guided glenohumeral joint injection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 183 (1) 48-50
• 69 Mulligan ME. CT-guided shoulder arthrography at the rotator cuff interval. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191 (2) W58-61
• 70 Soh E, Bearcroft PW, Graves MJ, Black R, Lomas DJ. MR-guided direct arthrography of the glenohumeral joint. Clin Radiol 2008; 63 (12) 1336-1341 ; discussion 1342–1343
• 71 Dépelteau H, Bureau NJ, Cardinal E, Aubin B, Brassard P. Arthrography of the shoulder: a simple fluoroscopically guided approach for targeting the rotator cuff interval. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 182 (2) 329-332
• 72 Farmer KD, Hughes PM. MR arthrography of the shoulder: fluoroscopically guided technique using a posterior approach. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178 (2) 433-434
• 73 Ng AW, Hung EH, Griffith JF, Tong CS, Cho CC. Comparison of ultrasound versus fluoroscopic guided rotator cuff interval approach for MR arthrography. Clin Imaging 2013; 37 (3) 548-553
• 74 Adriaensen ME, Ertl OT, Laar PJ, Nix M, Vanhoenacker FM. A motive for the use of a posterior approach in shoulder arthography: ventral leakage of contrast medium. Acta Radiol 2014; 55 (4) 450-453
• 75 Ogul H, Bayraktutan U, Ozgokce M , et al. Ultrasound-guided shoulder MR arthrography: comparison of rotator interval and posterior approach. Clin Imaging 2014; 38 (1) 11-17
• 76 Gokalp G, Dusak A, Yazici Z. Efficacy of ultrasonography-guided shoulder MR arthrography using a posterior approach. Skeletal Radiol 2010; 39 (6) 575-579
• 77 Souza PM, Aguiar RO, Marchiori E, Bardoe SA. Arthrography of the shoulder: a modified ultrasound guided technique of joint injection at the rotator interval. Eur J Radiol 2010; 74 (3) e29-e32
• 78 Redondo MV, Berná-Serna JD, Campos PA , et al. MR arthrography of the shoulder using an anterior approach: optimal injection site. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191 (5) 1397-1400
• 79 Chung CB, Dwek JR, Feng S, Resnick D. MR arthrography of the glenohumeral joint: a tailored approach. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 177 (1) 217-219
• 80 Kwak SM, Brown RR, Trudell D, Resnick D. Glenohumeral joint: comparison of shoulder positions at MR arthrography. Radiology 1998; 208 (2) 375-380
• 81 Koivikko MP, Mustonen AO. Shoulder magnetic resonance arthrography: a prospective randomized study of anterior and posterior ultrasonography-guided contrast injections. Acta Radiol 2008; 49 (8) 912-917
• 82 Valls R, Melloni P. Sonographic guidance of needle position for MR arthrography of the shoulder. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169 (3) 845-847
• 83 DeMouy EH, Menendez Jr CV, Bodin CJ. Palpation-directed (non-fluoroscopically guided) saline-enhanced MR arthrography of the shoulder. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169 (1) 229-231
• 84 Jacobson JA, Lin J, Jamadar DA, Hayes CW. Aids to successful shoulder arthrography performed with a fluoroscopically guided anterior approach. Radiographics 2003; 23 (2) 373-378 ; discussion 379
• 85 Grasso RF, Faiella E, Cimini P , et al. Direct magnetic resonance (MR) shoulder arthrography: posterior approach under ultrasonographic guidance and abduction (PAUGA). Radiol Med (Torino) 2013; 118 (5) 806-815
• 86 Hulstyn MJ, Fadale PD. Arthroscopic anatomy of the shoulder. Orthop Clin North Am 1995; 26 (4) 597-612
• 87 Schneider R, Ghelman B, Kaye JJ. A simplified injection technique for shoulder arthrography. Radiology 1975; 114 (3) 738-739
• 88 Palmer WE, Brown JH, Rosenthal DI. Rotator cuff: evaluation with fat-suppressed MR arthrography. Radiology 1993; 188 (3) 683-687
• 89 Lee SY, Lee JK. Horizontal component of partial-thickness tears of rotator cuff: imaging characteristics and comparison of ABER view with oblique coronal view at MR arthrography initial results. Radiology 2002; 224 (2) 470-476
• 90 Tirman PF, Bost FW, Steinbach LS , et al. MR arthrographic depiction of tears of the rotator cuff: benefit of abduction and external rotation of the arm. Radiology 1994; 192 (3) 851-856
• 91 Tian CY, Cui GQ, Zheng ZZ, Ren AH. The added value of ABER position for the detection and classification of anteroinferior labroligamentous lesions in MR arthrography of the shoulder. Eur J Radiol 2013; 82 (4) 651-657
• 92 Sheah K, Bredella MA, Warner JJ, Halpern EF, Palmer WE. Transverse thickening along the articular surface of the rotator cuff consistent with the rotator cable: identification with MR arthrography and relevance in rotator cuff evaluation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009; 193 (3) 679-686
• 93 Saleem AM, Lee JK, Novak LM. Usefulness of the abduction and external rotation views in shoulder MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191 (4) 1024-1030
• 94 Wischer TK, Bredella MA, Genant HK, Stoller DW, Bost FW, Tirman PF. Perthes lesion (a variant of the Bankart lesion): MR imaging and MR arthrographic findings with surgical correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178 (1) 233-237
• 95 Walch G, Liotard JP, Boileau P, Noël E. Postero-superior glenoid impingement. Another shoulder impingement. [in French]. Rev Chir Orthop Repar Appar Mot 1991; 77 (8) 571-574
• 96 Paley KJ, Jobe FW, Pink MM, Kvitne RS, ElAttrache NS. Arthroscopic findings in the overhand throwing athlete: evidence for posterior internal impingement of the rotator cuff. Arthroscopy 2000; 16 (1) 35-40
• 97 Tirman PF, Bost FW, Garvin GJ , et al. Posterosuperior glenoid impingement of the shoulder: findings at MR imaging and MR arthrography with arthroscopic correlation. Radiology 1994; 193 (2) 431-436
• 98 Manske RC, Grant-Nierman M, Lucas B. Shoulder posterior internal impingement in the overhead athlete. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2013; 8 (2) 194-204
• 99 Gerber C, Sebesta A. Impingement of the deep surface of the subscapularis tendon and the reflection pulley on the anterosuperior glenoid rim: a preliminary report. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2000; 9 (6) 483-490
• 100 Barile A, Lanni G, Conti L , et al. Lesions of the biceps pulley as cause of anterosuperior impingement of the shoulder in the athlete: potentials and limits of MR arthrography compared with arthroscopy. Radiol Med (Torino) 2013; 118 (1) 112-122
• 101 Bath SS, Bath SS, Tehranzadeh J. Anterosuperior glenoid impingement syndrome. Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord 2012; 5: 15-18
• 102 Steinbach LS, Rotator cuff disease. In: Steinbach LS, Tirman PFJ, Peterfy CG, Feller JF. , eds. Shoulder Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1988: 99-133
• 103 Kjellin I, Ho CP, Cervilla V , et al. Alterations in the supraspinatus tendon at MR imaging: correlation with histopathologic findings in cadavers. Radiology 1991; 181 (3) 837-841
• 104 Kaplan PA, Bryans KC, Davick JP, Otte M, Stinson WW, Dussault RG. MR imaging of the normal shoulder: variants and pitfalls. Radiology 1992; 184 (2) 519-524
• 105 Fitzpatrick D, Walz DM. Shoulder MR imaging normal variants and imaging artifacts. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2010; 18 (4) 615-632
• 106 Rafii M, Firooznia H, Sherman O , et al. Rotator cuff lesions: signal patterns at MR imaging. Radiology 1990; 177 (3) 817-823
• 107 Waldt S, Bruegel M, Mueller D , et al. Rotator cuff tears: assessment with MR arthrography in 275 patients with arthroscopic correlation. Eur Radiol 2007; 17 (2) 491-498
• 108 Stetson WB, Phillips T, Deutsch A. The use of magnetic resonance arthrography to detect partial-thickness rotator cuff tears. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2005; 87 (Suppl. 02) 81-88
• 109 Kassarjian A, Torriani M, Ouellette H, Palmer WE. Intramuscular rotator cuff cysts: association with tendon tears on MRI and arthroscopy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 185 (1) 160-165
• 110 Williams M, Lambert RG, Jhangri GS , et al. Humeral head cysts and rotator cuff tears: an MR arthrographic study. Skeletal Radiol 2006; 35 (12) 909-914
• 111 Jin W, Ryu KN, Park YK, Lee WK, Ko SH, Yang DM. Cystic lesions in the posterosuperior portion of the humeral head on MR arthrography: correlations with gross and histologic findings in cadavers. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 184 (4) 1211-1215
• 112 Suluova F, Kanatli U, Ozturk BY, Esen E, Bolukbasi S. Humeral head cysts: association with rotator cuff tears and age. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol 2013;
• 113 Sola Jr WC, Drake GN, Ramos CH, Gomes A, Gartsman GM. Calcific tendinitis of the rotator cuff associated with intraosseous loculation: two case reports. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2009; 18 (6) e6-e8
• 114 Zubler C, Mengiardi B, Schmid MR, Hodler J, Jost B, Pfirrmann CW. MR arthrography in calcific tendinitis of the shoulder: diagnostic performance and pitfalls. Eur Radiol 2007; 17 (6) 1603-1610
• 115 Chung CB, Corrente L, Resnick D. MR arthrography of the shoulder. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2004; 12 (1) 25-38 , v–vi
• 116 Waldt S, Metz S, Burkart A , et al. Variants of the superior labrum and labro-bicipital complex: a comparative study of shoulder specimens using MR arthrography, multi-slice CT arthrography and anatomical dissection. Eur Radiol 2006; 16 (2) 451-458
• 117 De Maeseneer M, Van Roy F, Lenchik L , et al. CT and MR arthrography of the normal and pathologic anterosuperior labrum and labral-bicipital complex. Radiographics 2000; 20 (Spec No) S67-S81
• 118 Yu D, Turmezei TD, Kerslake RW. FIESTA: an MR arthrography celebration of shoulder joint anatomy, variants, and their mimics. Clin Anat 2013; 26 (2) 213-227
• 119 Tuite MJ, Currie JW, Orwin JF, Baer GS, del Rio AM. Sublabral clefts and recesses in the anterior, inferior, and posterior glenoid labrum at MR arthrography. Skeletal Radiol 2013; 42 (3) 353-362
• 120 Dunham KS, Bencardino JT, Rokito AS. Anatomic variants and pitfalls of the labrum, glenoid cartilage, and glenohumeral ligaments. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2012; 20 (2) 213-228 , x
• 121 Robinson G, Ho Y, Finlay K, Friedman L, Harish S. Normal anatomy and common labral lesions at MR arthrography of the shoulder. Clin Radiol 2006; 61 (10) 805-821
• 122 Tsao LY, Mirowitz SA. MR imaging of the shoulder. Imaging techniques, diagnostic pitfalls, and normal variants. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 1997; 5 (4) 683-704
• 123 Kwak SM, Brown RR, Resnick D, Trudell D, Applegate GR, Haghighi P. Anatomy, anatomic variations, and pathology of the 11- to 3-o'clock position of the glenoid labrum: findings on MR arthrography and anatomic sections. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998; 171 (1) 235-238
• 124 Zanetti M, Carstensen T, Weishaupt D, Jost B, Hodler J. MR arthrographic variability of the arthroscopically normal glenoid labrum: qualitative and quantitative assessment. Eur Radiol 2001; 11 (4) 559-566
• 125 Smith DK, Chopp TM, Aufdemorte TB, Witkowski EG, Jones RC. Sublabral recess of the superior glenoid labrum: study of cadavers with conventional nonenhanced MR imaging, MR arthrography, anatomic dissection, and limited histologic examination. Radiology 1996; 201 (1) 251-256
• 126 DePalma AF, Gallery G, Bennett GA, Variational anatomy and degenerative lesions of the shoulder joint. In: Edwards JW. , ed. Instructional Course Lectures: The American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons. Vol 6. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1949: 225-228
• 127 Williams MM, Snyder SJ, Buford Jr D. The Buford complex—the “cord-like” middle glenohumeral ligament and absent anterosuperior labrum complex: a normal anatomic capsulolabral variant. Arthroscopy 1994; 10 (3) 241-247
• 128 Ellman H, Gartsman GM, Miscellaneous intra-articular conditions. In: Ellman H, Gartsman GM. , eds. Arthroscopic Shoulder Surgery and Related Procedures. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1993: 277-362
• 129 Snyder SJ, Karzel RP, Del Pizzo W, Ferkel RD, Friedman MJ. SLAP lesions of the shoulder. Arthroscopy 1990; 6 (4) 274-279
• 130 Maffet MW, Gartsman GM, Moseley B. Superior labrum-biceps tendon complex lesions of the shoulder. Am J Sports Med 1995; 23 (1) 93-98
• 131 Morgan CD, Burkhart SS, Palmeri M, Gillespie M. Type II SLAP lesions: three subtypes and their relationships to superior instability and rotator cuff tears. Arthroscopy 1998; 14 (6) 553-565
• 132 Mohana-Borges AVR, Chung CB, Resnick D. Superior labral anteroposterior tear: classification and diagnosis on MRI and MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 181 (6) 1449-1462
• 133 Bencardino JT, Beltran J, Rosenberg ZS , et al. Superior labrum anterior-posterior lesions: diagnosis with MR arthrography of the shoulder. Radiology 2000; 214 (1) 267-271
• 134 Waldt S, Burkart A, Lange P, Imhoff AB, Rummeny EJ, Woertler K. Diagnostic performance of MR arthrography in the assessment of superior labral anteroposterior lesions of the shoulder. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 182 (5) 1271-1278
• 135 Bresler F, Blum A, Braun M , et al. Assessment of the superior labrum of the shoulder joint with CT-arthrography and MR-arthrography: correlation with anatomical dissection. Surg Radiol Anat 1998; 20 (1) 57-62
• 136 Handelberg F, Willems S, Shahabpour M, Huskin JP, Kuta J. SLAP lesions: a retrospective multicenter study. Arthroscopy 1998; 14 (8) 856-862
• 137 Bergin D. Imaging shoulder instability in the athlete. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2009; 17 (4) 595-615 , v
• 138 Steinbach LS. MRI of shoulder instability. Eur J Radiol 2008; 68 (1) 57-71
• 139 Lee HJ, Kim NR, Moon SG, Ko SM, Park JY. Multidirectional instability of the shoulder: rotator interval dimension and capsular laxity evaluation using MR arthrography. Skeletal Radiol 2013; 42 (2) 231-238
• 140 Pavic R, Margetic P, Bensic M, Brnadic RL. Diagnostic value of US, MR and MR arthrography in shoulder instability. Injury 2013; 44 (Suppl. 03) S26-S32
• 141 Shankman S, Bencardino J, Beltran J. Glenohumeral instability: evaluation using MR arthrography of the shoulder. Skeletal Radiol 1999; 28 (7) 365-382
• 142 Danzig LA, Greenway G, Resnick D. The Hill-Sachs lesion. An experimental study. Am J Sports Med 1980; 8 (5) 328-332
• 143 Ranne JO, Sarimo JJ, Heinonen OJ, Orava SY. A combination of Latarjet and remplissage for treatment of severe glenohumeral instability and bone loss. A case report. J Orthop 2013; 10 (1) 46-48
• 144 Bankart A. The pathology and treatment of recurrent dislocation of the shoulder joint. Br J Surg 1938; 26: 23-29
• 145 Perthes G. Ueber operationen bei habitueller schulterluxation. Dtsch Z Chir 1906; 85: 199-227
• 146 Song HT, Huh YM, Kim S , et al. Anterior-inferior labral lesions of recurrent shoulder dislocation evaluated by MR arthrography in an adduction internal rotation (ADIR) position. J Magn Reson Imaging 2006; 23 (1) 29-35
• 147 Provencher MT. Glenoid bone loss in patients with instability: the significance of an ALPSA lesion. Paper presented at: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Annual Meeting; 2010; New Orleans, LA
• 148 Ozbaydar M, Elhassan B, Diller D, Massimini D, Higgins LD, Warner JJ. Results of arthroscopic capsulolabral repair: Bankart lesion versus anterior labroligamentous periosteal sleeve avulsion lesion. Arthroscopy 2008; 24 (11) 1277-1283
• 149 Habermeyer P, Gleyze P, Rickert M. Evolution of lesions of the labrum-ligament complex in posttraumatic anterior shoulder instability: a prospective study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 1999; 8 (1) 66-74
• 150 Neviaser TJ. The anterior labroligamentous periosteal sleeve avulsion lesion: a cause of anterior instability of the shoulder. Arthroscopy 1993; 9 (1) 17-21
• 151 Cvitanic O, Tirman PF, Feller JF, Bost FW, Minter J, Carroll KW. Using abduction and external rotation of the shoulder to increase the sensitivity of MR arthrography in revealing tears of the anterior glenoid labrum. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169 (3) 837-844
• 152 Sanders TG, Tirman PF, Linares R, Feller JF, Richardson R. The glenolabral articular disruption lesion: MR arthrography with arthroscopic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 172 (1) 171-175
• 153 Magee T. Prevalence of HAGL lesions and associated abnormalities on shoulder MR examination. Skeletal Radiol 2014; 43 (3) 307-313
• 154 George MS, Khazzam M, Kuhn JE. Humeral avulsion of glenohumeral ligaments. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2011; 19 (3) 127-133
• 155 Lee SY, Park J, Song SW. Correlation of MR arthrographic findings and range of shoulder motions in patients with frozen shoulder. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2012; 198 (1) 173-179
• 156 Song KD, Kwon JW, Yoon YC, Choi SH. Indirect MR arthrographic findings of adhesive capsulitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 197 (6) W1105-9
• 157 Patton WC, McCluskey III GM. Biceps tendinitis and subluxation. Clin Sports Med 2001; 20 (3) 505-529
• 158 Zanetti M, Weishaupt D, Gerber C, Hodler J. Tendinopathy and rupture of the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle: evaluation with MR arthrography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998; 170 (6) 1557-1561
• 159 Nakata W, Katou S, Fujita A, Nakata M, Lefor AT, Sugimoto H. Biceps pulley: normal anatomy and associated lesions at MR arthrography. Radiographics 2011; 31 (3) 791-810
• 160 Schaeffeler C, Waldt S, Holzapfel K , et al. Lesions of the biceps pulley: diagnostic accuracy of MR arthrography of the shoulder and evaluation of previously described and new diagnostic signs. Radiology 2012; 264 (2) 504-513
• 161 Walch G, Nové-Josserand L, Boileau P, Levigne C. Subluxations and dislocations of the tendon of the long head of the biceps. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 1998; 7 (2) 100-108
• 162 Probyn LJ, White LM, Salonen DC, Tomlinson G, Boynton EL. Recurrent symptoms after shoulder instability repair: direct MR arthrographic assessment—correlation with second-look surgical evaluation. Radiology 2007; 245 (3) 814-823
• 163 Mohana-Borges AV, Chung CB, Resnick D. MR imaging and MR arthrography of the postoperative shoulder: spectrum of normal and abnormal findings. Radiographics 2004; 24 (1) 69-85