Download PDF
Int J Sports Med 2014; 35(05): 403-411
DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1353177
Training & Testing
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Perceived Exertion, Time of Immersion and Physiological Correlates in Synchronized Swimming

L. Rodríguez-Zamora
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
,
X. Iglesias
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
,
A. Barrero
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
,
D. Chaverri
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
,
A. Irurtia
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
,
P. Erola
2   Department of Computer Engineering and Mathematics, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
,
F. A. Rodríguez
1   Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), INEFC-Barcelona Sports Science Research Group, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History



accepted after revision 16 July 2013

Publication Date:
30 September 2013 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between ratings of perceived exertion (RPE, CR-10), heart rate (HR), peak blood lactate (Lapeak), and immersion (IM) parameters in 17 elite synchronized swimmers performing 30 solo and duet routines during competition. All were video recorded (50 Hz) and an observational instrument was used to time the IM phases. Differences in the measured variables were tested using a linear mixed-effects model. RPE was 7.7±1.1 and did not differ among routines, and neither did any of the HR parameters. There were differences among routines in Lapeak (F3,7=16.5; P=0.002), number of IM (F3,15=14.0; P<0.001), total time immersed (F3,16=26.6; P<0.001), percentage of time immersed (F3,13=6.5; P=0.007) and number of IM longer than 10 s (F3,19=3.0; P=0.04). RPE correlated positively to HR pre-activation, range of variation and recovery, IM parameters and Lapeak, and inversely to minimum and mean HR. A hierarchical multiple linear regression (MLR) model (number of IM > 10 s, HR recovery, minimum HR, and Lapeak) explained 62% RPE variance (adj. Rm 2=0.62; P<0.001). A stepwise MLR model (Lapeak, mean IM time and pre-exercise HR) explained 46% of performance variance (adj. Rm 2=0.46; P<0.001). Findings highlight the psycho-physical stress imposed by the combination of intense dynamic exercise with repeated and prolonged apnea intervals during SS events.

Key words

synchronized swimming - RPE - blood lactate - heart rate - apnea - water immersion
 

  • References

  • 1 Alentejano T, Marshall D, Bell G. A time-motion analysis of elite solo synchronized swimming. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2008; 3: 31-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Alentejano TC, Bell GJ, Marshall D. A comparison of the physiological responses to underwater arm cranking and breath holding between synchronized swimmers and breath holding untrained women. J Hum Kinet 2012; 32: 147-156
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Alentejano TC, Marshall D, Bell GJ. Breath holding with water immersion in synchronized swimmers and untrained women. Res Sports Med 2010; 18: 97-114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Andersson J, Schagatay E, Gislén A, Holm B. Cardiovascular responses to cold-water immersions of the forearm and face, and their relationship to apnoea. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 83: 566-572
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Bante S, Bogdanis GC, Chairopoulou C, Maridaki M. Cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses to a simulated synchronized swimming routine in senior (> 18 years) and comen (13–15 years) national level athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fit 2007; 47: 291-299
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Barbosa TM, Bragada JA, Reis VM, Marinho DA, Carvalho C, Silva AJ. Energetics and biomechanics as determining factors of swimming performance: updating the state of the art. J Sci Med Sport 2010; 13: 262-269
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Bompa TO. Periodization: theory and methodology of training. 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1999
    Google Scholar
  • 8 Borg G. Borg’s perceived exertion and pain scales. 1st ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1998
    Google Scholar
  • 9 Borg G. Borg’s range model and scales. Int J Sport Psychol 2001; 32: 110-126
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Bridge CA, Jones MA, Drust B. Physiological responses and perceived exertion during international taekwondo competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2009; 4: 485-493
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Castellano J, Perea A, Alday L, Mendo AH. The measuring and observation tool in sports. Behav Res Methods 2008; 40: 898-905
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Chatard JC, Mujika I, Chantegraille MC, Kostucha J. Performance and physiological responses to a 5-week synchronized swimming technical training programme in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 479-483
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Chen M, Fan X, Moe S. Criterion-related validity of the Borg ratings of perceived exertion scale in healthy individuals: a meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 2002; 20: 873-899
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Davies BN, Donaldson GC, Joels N. Do the competition rules of synchronized swimming encourage undesirable levels of hypoxia?. Br J Sports Med 1995; 29: 16-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Dykes RW. Factors related to the dive reflex in harbor seals: respiration, immersion bradycardia, and lability of the heart rate. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1974; 52: 248-258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Elsner R, Gooden B. Diving and asphyxia. A comparative study of animals and man. Monogr Physiol Soc 1983; 40: 1-168
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Gabín B, Camerino O, Anguera MT, Castañer M. Lince: multiplatform sport analysis software. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 2012; 46: 4692-4694
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Gabrilo G, Peric M, Stipic M. Pulmonary function in pubertal synchronized swimmers: 1-year follow-up results and its relation to competitive achievement. Med Probl Perform Art 2011; 26: 39-43
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Garcin M. Influence of Aerobic Fitness Level on Measured and Estimated Perceived Exertion During Exhausting Runs. Int J Sports Med 2004; 25: 270-277
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Gemma KE, Wells CL. Heart rates of elite synchronized swimmers. Phys Sportsmed 1987; 15: 99-106
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Gooden B. Mechanism of the human diving response. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 1994; 29: 6-16
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. Update – Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research. Int J Sports Med 2011; 32: 819-821
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Homma M. The components and the time of ‘face in’ of the routines in synchronized swimming. Med Sport Sci 1994; 39: 149-154
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Homma M, Takahshi G. Heart rate response during exercise with breath holding in synchronized Swimming (in Japanese with English abstract). Undogaku Kenkyu, Univ of Tsukuba 1999; 11: 27-38
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Hurwitz BE, Furedy JJ. The human dive reflex: an experimental, topographical and physiological analysis. Physiol Behav 1986; 36: 287-294
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Iellamo F. Neural mechanisms of cardiovascular regulation during exercise. Auton Neurosci 2001; 90: 66-75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Irving L. Bradycardia in human divers. J Appl Physiol 1963; 18: 489-491
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Jamnik V, Gledhill N, Hunter I, Murray P. Physiological assessment of synchronized swimming and elite synchronized swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1987; 19: S65
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Joulia F, Steinberg JG, Wolff F, Gavarry O, Jammes Y. Reduced oxidative stress and blood lactic acidosis in trained breath-hold human divers. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2002; 133: 121-130
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Kurokawa T, Ueda T. Validity of ratings of perceived exertion as an index of exercise intensity in swimming training. Ann Physiol Anthropol 1992; 11: 277-288
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Levy MN, DeGeest H, Zieske H, Levy D. Effects of Respiratory Center Activity on the Heart. Circ Res 1966; 18: 67-78
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Lin YC. Breath-hold diving in terrestrial mammals. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1982; 10: 270-307
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Manley L. Apnoeic heart rate responses in humans. A review. Sports Med 1990; 9: 286-310
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Marsh N, Askew D, Beer K, Gerke M, Muller D, Reichman C. Relative contributions of voluntary apnoea, exposure to cold and face immersion in water to diving bradycardia in humans. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1995; 22: 886-887
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Martins M, Silva AJ, Marinho DA, Pereira AL, Moreira A, Sarmento P, Barbosa TM. Assessment of heart rate during infants’ swim session. Int Sportsmed J 2010; 11: 336-344
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Minganti C, Capranica L, Meeusen R, Amici S, Piacentini MF. The validity of session rating of perceived exertion method for quantifying training load in teamgym. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24: 3063-3068
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Minganti C, Capranica L, Meeusen R, Piacentini MF. The use of session-RPE method for quantifying training load in diving. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2011; 6: 408-418
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Moore TO, Lin YC, Lally DA, Hong SK. Effects of temperature, immersion, and ambient pressure on human apneic bradycardia. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33: 36-41
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Moreira A, McGuigan MR, Arruda AF, Freitas CG, Aoki MS. Monitoring internal load parameters during simulated and official basketball matches. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26: 861-866
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Mountjoy M. The basics of synchronized swimming and its injuries. Clin Sports Med 1999; 18: 321-336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Mountjoy M. Injuries and medical issues in synchronized Olympic sports. Curr Sports Med Rep 2009; 8: 255-261
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Noble BJ, Robertson RJ. Perceived Exertion. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1996
    Google Scholar
  • 43 Pandolf K. Influence of local and central factors in dominating rated perceived exertion during physical work. Percept Mot Skills 1978; 46: 683-698
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Pazikas MGA, Curi A, Aoki MS. Behaviour of physiological variables in synchronized swimming athletes during a training session preparing for the Athens 2004 Olympic Games. Rev Bras Med Esporte 2005; 11: 357-362
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Perini R, Orizio C, Comande A, Castellano M, Beschi M, Veicsteinas A. Plasma norepinephrine and heart rate dynamics during recovery from submaximal exercise in man. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 879-883
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Psycharakis SG. A longitudinal analysis on the validity and reliability of ratings of perceived exertion for elite swimmers. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25: 420-426
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Robertson RJ, Noble BJ. Perception of physical exertion: methods, mediators, and applications. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1997; 25: 407-452
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Robinson DM, Robinson SM, Hume PA, Hopkins WG. Training intensity of elite male distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1078-1082
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Rodríguez-Zamora L, Iglesias X, Barrero A, Chaverri D, Erola P, Rodríguez FA. Physiological Responses in Relation to Performance during Competition in Elite Synchronized Swimmers. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e49098
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Schagatay E. Predicting performance in competitive apnea diving. Part II: dynamic apnea. Diving Hyperb Med 2010; 40: 11-22
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Schagatay E, Andersson J, Nielsen B. Hematological response and diving response during apnea and apnea with face immersion. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 101: 125-132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Schagatay E, Holm B. Effects of water and ambient air temperatures on human diving bradycardia. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 1-6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Schuitema K, Holm B. The role of different facial areas in eliciting human diving bradycardia. Acta Physiol Scand 1988; 132: 119-120
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Serrano MA, Salvador A, Gonzalez-Bono E, Sanchis C, Suay F. Relationships between recall of perceived exertion and blood lactate concentration in a judo competition. Percept Mot Skills 2001; 92: 1139-1148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Shephard RJ, Vandewalle H, Gil V, Bouhlel E, Monod H. Respiratory, muscular, and overall perceptions of effort: the influence of hypoxia and muscle mass. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 556-567
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Smith D. Heart rate and blood lactate concentration response to an in-water routine by synchronized swimmers. Can J Appl Physiol 1988; 13: 2
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Sugawara J, Murakami H, Maeda S, Kuno S, Matsuda M. Change in post-exercise vagal reactivation with exercise training and detraining in young men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 85: 259-263
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Wallace LK, Slattery KM, Coutis AJ. The ecological validity and application of the session – RPE method for quantifiying training loads in swimming. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 33-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Wein J, Andersson J, Erdéus J. Cardiac and ventilatory responses to apneic exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 100: 637-644
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Yamamura C, Matsui N, Kitagawa K. Physiological loads in the team technical and free routines of synchronized swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1171-1174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Yamamura C, Miyagi O, Zushi S, Ishiko T, Matsui N, Kitagawa K. Exercise intensity during a free routine in well trained synchronized swimmers. Jpn J Phys Fit Sport 1998; 47: 199-208
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Zeni AI, Hoffman MD, Clifford PS. Relationships among heart rate, lactate concentration, and perceived effort for different types of rhythmic exercise in women. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996; 77: 237-241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar