Algae-Driven Transition from Oil to Renewable Alternatives: Policy for Scale and Sustainability

Abstract

Algae cultivation offers a transformative alternative to mitigate the environmental and social impacts of fossil fuel dependency, replacing crude oil with a renewable carbon source to produce plastics and chemicals. This policy report evaluates algae technology as a pathway to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs), emphasizing scalable and sustainable solutions. Current photobioreactor designs and low productivity hinder industrial-scale adoption (>1000 tons/year/facility); however, artificial lighting and interdisciplinary innovation present viable opportunities. We propose recommendations to accelerate this transition: developing high-productivity strains, novel photobioreactors optimized for scalability; fostering continuous operation and biofilm management; and integrating algae into industrial ecosystems via robust value chains. Education is pivotal — curricula must evolve to embed green chemistry and scale-up principles, equipping students to design sustainable systems. Funding should shift to reward scalable outcomes, verified through rigorous replication, while policies must align with multiple UN SDGs holistically. Cultural acceptance of algae-based products requires reframing public perception through targeted outreach. In uniting engineering, science, and education, this report envisions a bio-based, circular economy driven by algae technology. These advancements, if supported by research, investment, and societal buy-in, can position algae as a cornerstone of long-term sustainability, reducing reliance on fossil resources and fostering a resilient future.

Significance

Globally, 19% of oil production fuels plastics and chemicals, yet no scalable technology exists to swiftly replace this demand while meeting United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Algae cultivation with artificial lighting offers a sustainable substitute, recycling CO₂ into value-added products. This report evaluates advancements in algae technology, addressing scalability barriers, and proposes recommendations for research, funding, and educational reforms. By optimizing photobioreactors, enhancing curricula, and fostering interdisciplinary efforts, we aim to accelerate this transition, aligning with global sustainability goals.

Executive Summary

This policy report assesses algae cultivation as a renewable alternative to crude oil, which supplies 19% of global production for the chemical industry’s plastics and value-added products. Algae technology promises CO₂ recycling and sustainability; however, scaling from lab to industrial levels (>1000 tons/year/facility) remains elusive. Historical efforts, from early photochemical studies to modern photobioreactors and open ponds, highlight persistent challenges: low productivity, scalability barriers, and inefficient long-term operation, harvesting, and downstream processing. Defining “large scale” is critical in replacing oil demands, as doing so would require cultivation volumes approaching 500 million m³ annually and necessitate ambitious, quantifiable targets.

To overcome these hurdles and align with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, we propose a multipronged strategy. First, prioritize innovative cultivation systems, such as artificially lit photobioreactors, together with high-productivity strains and optimized bioprocesses, expanding applications for algae-derived products. Second, foster interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists, engineers, funding bodies, and industry to bridge the research-commercialization divide, leveraging computational tools and industrial infrastructure. Third, embed algae technology and green-chemistry principles into university curricula, equipping future professionals with skills for scalable, sustainable solutions. These efforts require a shift from short-term, knowledge-driven research to transferability and scalability-focused innovation, supported by funding models that reward proven scale-up milestones and rigorous verification.

Introduction

Foreword

At the COP29 conference in Baku, Azerbaijan, in 2024, the OPEC Secretary General described oil as “a gift from God.” This policy report rejects such outdated perspectives, instead highlighting true solutions to climate change: algae cultivation, engineering, scale-up, and science. Authored by an international, interdisciplinary team, this document shifts the focus to these forward-looking strategies. We address pressing challenges in transitioning from fossil fuels, spotlighting algae’s potential as a sustainable carbon source. Key issues and actionable insights throughout are marked with (recommendation) to guide research, policy, and education toward a resilient, bio-based future.

How did we get here?

Ending the fossil fuel dependency of human mankind represents one of the most pressing challenges of our time, with profound implications for achieving multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs). Globally, 19% of annual oil production, equivalent to 2.8 million cubic meters per day, surpassing the kerosene consumption of worldwide civil aviation, is dedicated to the production of plastics and other value-added chemical products ([Fig. 1]).[1] These materials underpin modern life, forming the basis of goods, infrastructure, and essential commodities, from pharmaceuticals to advanced polymers. Achieving a sustainable future necessitates the rapid elimination of this fossil fuel reliance within our generation. While significant research and innovation efforts have targeted oil substitution in sectors, such as transportation, process heating, and residential energy through electrification, heat pumps, batteries, and hydrogen, comparable urgency is lacking in addressing carbon sources for value-added products. This gap is particularly striking given the absence of readily deployable or scalable technologies to replace oil in this domain, unlike the established trajectories of solutions such as electric vehicles. The casual dismissal of this critical 19% of oil consumption as “other (including polymers and chemicals)” in recent literature underscores a persistent lack of priority, despite its foundational role in modern society ([Fig. 1]).[1] [2]

Fig. 1 Distribution of the world oil consumption in sectors. Data according to literature.[1]

Plastic — Back to the Future

The challenge of fossil-based plastics exemplifies this issue. In 1967, the film “The Graduate” famously encapsulated the era’s optimism about plastics as a pathway to prosperity. Today, however, plastic waste, particularly marine pollution and microplastics detected in environments ranging from water to snow, poses an escalating threat to humanity and future generations. An alternative approach involves leveraging biomass as a carbon source and focusing on biodegradable bioplastic. Yet, reliance on cultivated biomass, whether from crops or natural harvesting, introduces significant drawbacks: extensive land requirements disrupt ecosystems, exacerbate resource overexploitation, and compete with food production for a growing global population, reigniting the “food versus fuel” debate. Cultivating microorganisms, such as fast-growing heterotrophic bacteria, for plastic production shifts the challenge to the sourcing of carbon inputs (e.g., sugar from cane cultivation), perpetuating land-use concerns. A sustainable path forward demands scalable technologies that minimize land use, bioresource consumption, and raw material inputs, while prioritizing biodegradable products that balance durability during use with accessibility to degradation methods (recommendation).

Carbon Recycling and the Limits of Conventional Approaches Recycling

While recycling remains a critical strategy for reducing the demand for fossil carbon sources, its limitations necessitate alternative pathways to ensure sustainability. Priority should be given to the sustainable production of value-added products through “carbon recycling,” specifically by utilizing CO₂ previously emitted into the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion. Current estimates of recycling rates for consumer goods indicate that, despite projected increases to 50% in the recycling of high-value products and waste, these efforts will not achieve levels sufficient to eliminate the need for complementary approaches.[3] Conventional recycling, although essential, cannot fully address the scale of carbon demand required for modern society’s material needs. By focusing on CO₂ as a feedstock, this policy seeks to close the carbon loop, transforming a waste product into a resource for generating essential chemical products and polymers, thereby reducing reliance on fossil-derived inputs.[2]

The Imperative of Rapid Scale-Up

The success of any innovative process, whether biological, enzymatic, or chemical, hinges on its rapid deployment at an industrial scale. For emerging technologies, the central question is no longer solely about invention, but about accessibility: How, and with what resources and conditions, can solutions be scaled to meet global demand efficiently? Too often, failures in process scale-up are dismissed as inevitable, rather than addressed with a rigorous “do it once and do it right” approach,[4] [5] which should define the ethos of applied scientific research (recommendation). This persistent challenge is exemplified by the abandonment of promising technologies to “problems in scale-up,” deflecting responsibility to industry or other sectors rather than embracing it as a scientific imperative. The history of scale-up failures, particularly in biotechnological processes, is extensive and poorly documented, with many cases neither publicly analyzed nor reported. This opacity stifles investment in disruptive innovations and undermines progress toward sustainable industrial solutions. To overcome these barriers, a shift in scientific and policy priorities is essential, emphasizing not just discovery but also the practical realization and scalability of carbon recycling technologies and the use of modern digital tools.[4] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

CO₂ as a Feedstock for Algae Systems

Algae and cyanobacteria, among Earth’s oldest microorganisms, offer a promising avenue for carbon recycling by utilizing CO₂ as their sole carbon source to produce equivalents of crude oil-derived products. This capability positions algal cultivation as an integrative solution, simultaneously sequestering atmospheric CO₂ and generating high-value products, such as biofuels, bioplastics, and chemicals ([Fig. 2]). By harnessing photosynthesis to transform a greenhouse gas into industrially relevant materials, this approach aligns with the policy’s emphasis on sustainable, scalable technologies that minimize reliance on fossil inputs. Unlike traditional biomass strategies, algal systems can potentially reduce land-use pressures through controlled cultivation, offering a pathway to bridge the gap between carbon capture and the production of essential goods.

Fig. 2 Carbon cycle involving Algae cultivation. Created in BioRender. Choo, Y. (2025) https://BioRender.com/m59w914

Algae Cultivation as a Policy Focus

While multiple approaches to carbon recycling merit consideration, such as Fischer–Tropsch-based direct air capture methods, this policy report centers on algae technology as a scalable and sustainable alternative to crude oil-derived feedstocks.[11] Successful large-scale implementation of artificial macroalgae and microalgae cultivation offers a pathway to produce high-value products without the severe ecological and land-use drawbacks associated with traditional biomass strategies. Algae have been cultivated historically for nutritional purposes and artificially since the 1950s,[12] [13] with modern systems relying on photobioreactors to optimize growth and CO₂ uptake. These systems leverage the inherent efficiency of algal photosynthesis to convert atmospheric CO₂ into a versatile carbon source, aligning with the policy’s goal of minimizing fossil fuel dependency. By prioritizing algae technology, this report advocates for a solution that integrates carbon sequestration with industrial production; provided its scalability can be realized effectively.

Addressing Gaps in Scientific Education and Incentives

The realization of algae technology’s potential is constrained by deficiencies in the current educational and research landscape, which often neglects the practical application of scientific discoveries. Developing scalable and transferable technologies requires a shift in focus: Scientific research must emphasize solutions that bridge the gap between laboratory innovation and industrial deployment, supported by robust collaboration between academia and industry. Educational institutions play a critical role in this transition, necessitating curricula that equip students with skills in practical problem-solving and innovation tailored to real-world challenges (recommendation).[14] [15] [16] However, existing incentives in scientific publishing fail to prioritize scalability. Introducing metrics such as technology readiness levels (TRLs) could help assess the developmental stage of technologies (recommendation); yet TRLs alone are insufficient, as they do not address accessibility or affordability, key factors in ensuring widespread adoption. To unlock the promise of algae cultivation and similar innovations, a revised framework for research and education is essential, one that rewards not only discovery but also the actionable implementation of sustainable solutions.

State of the Art in Algae Cultivation Techniques and Value-Added Products

Open or Closed Photobioreactor Systems

Photobioreactors, rooted in early photochemical experiments by Giacomo Ciamician, were first developed to harness sunlight for algae cultivation and have since evolved into well-established systems such as open pond reactors and closed tubular photobioreactors.[13] [17] [18] [19] [20] Sunlight, as a free and renewable energy source, presents a sustainable option for driving algal growth; however, these systems have yet to achieve industrial-scale production exceeding 1000 tons per facility annually. This limitation stems from multiple factors: dependency on geographic location, inability to sustain around-the-clock cultivation, low growth rates, constraints on algae strains suitable for open ponds, and high capital costs for closed solar-based systems. Open raceway ponds offer low construction and operational costs but demand significant land and water resources, support only select organisms, and deliver modest productivity (measured as g/m²/day).[21] In contrast, closed outdoor photobioreactors provide greater control, accommodate a broader range of algae species, and achieve higher growth rates, yet their energy and process management requirements increase operational complexity. Globally, system preferences vary: 97% of facilities in Asia utilize open ponds,[22] while 71% in Europe employ closed systems, likely reflecting spatial and resource constraints. Despite extensive documentation of scaled open and closed facilities, the disparity between laboratory research and large-scale application persists,[23] with open systems dominating commercial cultivation despite their limitations.[24]

Challenges of Light Penetration in Photobioreactors

A critical challenge in photobioreactor design is the limited penetration depth of light into algal suspensions, typically restricted to 5 – 10 cm,[25] which constrains the efficiency of both natural and artificial lighting systems. Designs have traditionally been one-dimensional (e.g., tubular reactors) or two-dimensional (e.g., flat plates or ponds), with illumination provided externally or internally. Recent innovations, such as tank reactors with internal lighting tubes, mark an initial shift toward three-dimensional configurations, potentially enhancing light distribution.[26] Buchholz et al. further classify lighting as static or dynamic,[27] highlighting operational trade-offs: excessive light intensity can trigger photoinhibition when it exceeds the photosynthetic capacity of low-concentration algae,[28] whereas newly identified species demonstrate tolerance for high light levels.[29] Current research focuses on optimizing algae strains for productivity and resilience; yet, scaling these advances into cost-effective, high-yield systems remains elusive. Overcoming these technical barriers is essential to unlock the full potential of algae as a source of value-added products, from biofuels to biopolymers, within a sustainable carbon-recycling framework.

Advancing Algae Cultivation with Artificial Lighting

Harnessing Renewable Energy and LED Efficiency

Artificial lighting in photobioreactors presents a transformative opportunity for algae cultivation, offering distinct advantages over sunlight-dependent systems, with significant electricity demands, however. The rapid expansion of renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar cells, generates surplus power during peak production periods, often available at minimal cost on-site. Integrating high-electricity-consumption technologies, such as artificial lighting, into this framework not only mitigates the perceived drawback of energy intensity but also supports the broader rollout of renewable electricity infrastructure. By leveraging process knowledge to utilize these electricity spikes effectively, algae cultivation can align with sustainable energy goals. Recent advancements in LED technology further bolster this approach, with high-power LEDs now achieving light efficiencies of ≥50% (≥2.9 μmol/J) and becoming widely available as cost-effective mass products.[30] Although approximately 50% of energy is lost as heat, this dissipation can be captured in large-scale facilities using heat pumps to meet local heating needs. As LED efficiency continues to improve and emerging technologies (e.g., quantum dots) promise further gains, artificially lit photobioreactors are poised to outstrip sunlight-driven systems in productivity, closing the gap between current capabilities and industrial-scale potential.

Precision and Productivity Through Controlled Lighting

The adoption of artificial lighting marks a pivotal shift in algae cultivation, enabling, for the first time, complete control over all process parameters, including light intensity, duration, and spectrum. Unlike sunlight-driven systems, which are subject to diurnal and weather-related variability, artificial lighting facilitates round-the-clock cultivation tailored to optimized growth conditions. This capability, grounded in extensive research and development, empowers the generation of process knowledge to engineer solutions that can replace crude oil as a raw material. Such knowledge also enhances hybrid facilities that combine sunlight and artificial lighting, improving their efficiency and flexibility. Current estimates suggest that photobioreactors with artificial lighting achieve three to four times greater productivity than solar-only systems: a significant leap, given that sun-driven facilities have failed to exceed 1000 tons of annual production in over 70 years of development. This historical stagnation underscores the limitations of relying solely on natural light for large-scale algae cultivation to displace fossil feedstocks. By capitalizing on technological advances in LED systems and artificial lighting, a scalable, controllable approach that promises to redefine the future of sustainable carbon recycling is needed.

Product Versatility and Productivity Challenges in Algae Cultivation

Diverse Applications and Productivity Barriers

Algae cultivation, whether driven by sunlight, artificial lighting, or hybrid systems, yields a broad spectrum of value-added products, ranging from biofuels to pharmaceuticals, as illustrated in [Fig. 3].[31] [32] [33]

Fig. 3 Raw materials, product range, and purpose of algae cultivation. UN SDGs are assigned to visualize their interconnectivity with elements of the algae cultivation. Please note that this publication has not been approved by the United Nations and does not reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States.

This versatility reflects the adaptability of algae to diverse national priorities and cultural contexts, with applications varying by location and resource availability. However, productivity remains a critical bottleneck. Current industrial-scale algae cultivation in continuous production achieves growth rates at or below 1 g/L/day,[34] a space-time yield insufficient for widespread adoption in large facilities. In contrast, laboratory-scale or specialized systems have demonstrated short-term rates of 3–5 g/L/day, with genetic modification potentially pushing this to 10 g/L/day and biological limits estimated at 30–50 g/L/day.[35] [36] These disparities highlight a persistent challenge: while algae technology offers remarkable product diversity, its industrial implementation lags due to low productivity, underscoring the need for scalable innovations to bridge the gap between potential and practice.

Eukaryotic Systems and Emerging Opportunities

The versatility of algae extends beyond simple metabolites to complex biomolecules, enabled by eukaryotic species such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. These organisms, equipped with modular cloning toolkits, serve as photosynthetic chassis capable of rapid customization (i.e., within days) to produce tailored value-added products.[37] Their metabolic pathways and posttranslational modification capabilities allow the synthesis of intricate molecules, such as the wild-type SARS-CoV-2 spike protein with correct glycosidic modifications,[37] which traditional microbial workhorses like Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae cannot achieve. Meanwhile, prokaryotic cyanobacteria, with billions of years of evolutionary resilience, thrive under extreme environmental conditions, including high or low temperatures.[38] Recent advances have produced high-productivity, halophilic, and thermotolerant strains, such as Picochlorum renovo, which exhibit bacterial-like growth rates.[34] However, ethical and ecological concerns have historically restricted the use of genetically engineered species in open systems.[23] The advent of enclosed indoor cultivation systems, such as artificially lit photobioreactors, mitigates these risks, rendering such approaches potentially viable with appropriate risk assessments (recommendation). This shift could unlock significant productivity gains, aligning algae technology with the policy’s goal of replacing fossil feedstocks.

Enhancing Photosynthetic Efficiency

The efficiency of CO₂ fixation in algae hinges on RuBisCO, the primary enzyme in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis, which evolved billions of years ago in an atmosphere rich in CO₂ and nearly devoid of oxygen. This evolutionary legacy renders RuBisCO poorly selective, mistakenly binding O₂ instead of CO₂ in approximately one out of every four reactions. These side reactions trigger photorespiration, an energy-intensive process that reduces overall yield. Ongoing research seeks to address this inefficiency by engineering “artificial photosynthetic systems” with improved enzymatic cycles, potentially eliminating cellular dependency altogether.[39] [40] [41] Such advancements could dramatically enhance productivity, particularly in enclosed systems where oxygen accumulation, produced during photosynthesis, poses an additional challenge requiring active management. These efforts represent a critical frontier in optimizing algae as a scalable carbon-recycling platform, aligning with the policy’s aim to replace fossil feedstocks with sustainable alternatives.

Technical Barriers to Industrial Scale-Up

Despite progress, scaling algae cultivation to meet industrial demands remains elusive. Two facilities currently in planning and construction aim to produce 300 – 500 tons of omega-3 fatty acids annually at the final expansion stage of using artificially lit photobioreactors,[42] [43] offering a viable substitute for fish oil. While this demonstrates feasibility for niche, high-value products, the high investment costs of these systems render them uneconomical for broader applications, such as providing biomass for the chemical industry or high-volume commodities. The scientific and industrial communities continue to await facilities exceeding 1000 tons of annual production (recommendation), a threshold yet to be surpassed in over seven decades of development. Effective technology transfer from laboratory to industrial scale remains a linchpin for success, requiring detailed strategies to overcome persistent challenges. While scaling issues for microalgae have been widely studied, the specific hurdles in translating cyanobacterial production systems from lab to industry (e.g., process consistency, cost reduction, and infrastructure adaptation) remain underexplored.[44] [45] [46] Addressing these gaps is essential to unlock algae cultivation’s potential as a cornerstone of sustainable material production.

Managing Biofilm Formation

Biofilm formation is an inherent phenomenon in algae cultivation, arising from the excretion of extracellular polymeric substances that create networks of cells and matrix material. The triggers, initial development, and spatiotemporal dynamics of biofilms remain incompletely understood, necessitating further research to elucidate these processes.[47] In photobioreactors, biofilms increase operational costs by requiring cleaning and removal, leading to downtime and additional labor. With artificial lighting enhancing process control, future research should aim to achieve a predictive and manageable understanding of biofilm formation (recommendation), although this demands significant investigative effort.[47] Photobioreactor design must evolve to either prevent biofilm accumulation, thus leveraging emerging process knowledge or incorporate cost-effective cleaning methods. Alternatively, biofilm growth could be intentionally harnessed as a cultivation strategy, with designs optimized for biofilm-based production.[48] Such approaches could transform a challenge into an opportunity, provided the underlying mechanisms are better characterized and integrated into scalable systems.

Co-Cultures and Carbon Sourcing Challenges

Drawing inspiration from agricultural practices like crop rotation and co-cultures, which enhance yield and reduce resource inputs, biotechnology is increasingly exploring microbial consortia and co-culture systems for algae cultivation. These strategies promise improved growth rates and reduced dependency on fertilizers or external inputs, mirroring benefits observed in traditional farming. However, while such innovations hold the potential to optimize already scalable processes, the primary obstacle remains achieving industrial-scale production. Some algae species can adopt utilizing heterotrophic carbon sources such as sugar, glycerol, or acetate alongside photosynthesis, yet this flexibility raises a critical scalability question: How to sustainably source these carbon inputs? Currently, these compounds are derived from vegetative biomass via photosynthesis, reintroducing land-use and resource competition concerns akin to those in traditional biomass production.[49] [50] [51] [52] [53] Scalability must remain the priority, with co-culture approaches positioned as a secondary enhancement to boost efficiency once large-scale systems are established.

Discussion

Constraints on Scale in Current Photobioreactor Designs

Why are there no algal cultivation facilities exceeding 1000 tons/year productivity developed using LED lighting? We ascribe this in part to the current photobioreactor designs, which require a physical connection of the artificial lighting to the photobioreactor or thin structures such as tubes or plates. Thus, the technical complex and inflexible designs are not generating a cost–benefit in equipment construction when scaling up to large volumes.

Rethinking Design for Artificial Lighting

Adapting sunlight-oriented photobioreactor designs for indoor use with artificial lighting is inefficient and fails to capitalize on the control and productivity advantages of LED systems. New designs tailored specifically for artificial lighting and cost-efficient scalability in three dimensions are essential to maximize scalability, minimize light losses, and optimize growth parameters, such as temperature, light penetration depth, and nutrient availability (recommendation). While retrofitting existing solar-based facilities with artificial lighting offers a transitional strategy,[54] research and development efforts should prioritize novel configurations. Computational tools, such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and Aspen Plus, can identify and optimize influential parameters in the cultivation medium prior to scale-up, thereby enhancing reactor efficiency.[55] These advancements could bridge the disparity between current outputs (e.g., 1 g/L/day industrially) and laboratory peaks (3–5 g/L/day), paving the way for algae to meet industrial demands sustainably.

Importance of Long-Term Cultivation and Metrics

Beyond initial scale-up, achieving fully continuous operation is a cornerstone of viable algae technology (recommendation). Current scientific literature predominantly reports short-term cultivation experiments (i.e., lasting from days to a maximum of 2 weeks), yet long-term, repetitive trials critical for industrial reliability remain scarce. This gap in operational knowledge impedes the transition to stable, high-volume production. Equally pressing is the need for appropriate metrics to evaluate scalability. While frameworks like the TRL gauge developmental stages, they do not directly assess a technology’s capacity to meet large-scale demand or its adaptability to diverse products. For instance, a TRL 8 – 9 process for hormone production may suffice for niche markets but fail to address high-volume, low-cost commodities competitive with fossil-derived equivalents. Defining scalability metrics, such as annual production capacity relative to global demand or accessibility for affordable bulk products (recommendation), could guide funding and development, with grant tranches tied to demonstrated scaling success.

Aligning with Broader Sustainability Goals

Algae cultivation must not only achieve scale but also align with the UN SDGs holistically. Focusing on a single goal, such as climate action, risks unintended negative impacts on others, such as land use or food security. This policy report advocates for solutions that positively or neutrally address the full spectrum of UN SDGs, ensuring sustainability and circularity without trade-offs (recommendation). Whether CO₂ is sequestered underground or transformed into high-value products, be they niche or commodity, the climate benefits remain, provided the process is scalable and resource-efficient. The central challenge lies in incentivizing solutions for large-scale, low-cost products, where traditional business models, reliant on rapid returns, falter. Innovative funding mechanisms and revised economic frameworks are needed to bridge this gap, fostering technologies that deliver both environmental and societal benefits over the long term.

Perpetuating Long-Lasting Change

Education as a Catalyst for Systemic Integration

The successful integration of algae-based biorefineries into society hinges on cultivating a scientific workforce equipped with 21^st-century skills to drive systemic change across sectors. This imperative aligns with the 12 principles of green chemistry,[56] which emphasize renewable feedstocks, energy-efficient processes, and reduced chemical toxicity, mirrored in algae cultivation’s potential to transform CO₂ into sustainable products. Such an approach not only advances the scalability of algae technology but also supports the achievement of the 17 UN SDGs created in 2015. By fostering expertise in designing safer, greener processes, education becomes fundamental for unlocking algae’s full potential, bridging laboratory innovation with industrial application, and addressing global sustainability challenges holistically.

Green Chemistry in the Curricula

Chemistry education plays a pivotal role in equipping students with the knowledge and skills to optimize algae-based systems while advancing the UN SDGs.[57] Organizations like Beyond Benign, founded in 2007,[58] exemplify this mission by promoting green chemistry education globally through initiatives such as the Green Chemistry Commitment (GCC) program. The GCC encourages higher education institutions to embed green chemistry into curricula,[59] employing strategies ranging from comprehensive reform to incremental integration, further teaching traditional concepts through a sustainability lens or incorporating toxicology principles. Collaborations with nongovernmental organizations, industries, and academic societies amplify these efforts, broadening their impact. Integrating algae-related topics into this framework offers a practical way for teaching photosynthesis, biochemistry, and bioprocess engineering, while reinforcing green chemistry’s relevance to a sustainable future.[58]

Strategies for Embedding Algae in Education

To effectively incorporate algae cultivation into chemistry curricula, a three-pronged educational strategy is proposed (recommendation) ([Fig. 4]).

Fig. 4 Three-Pronged Approach in Education as contribution to UN SDG 4 “Quality Education”.

Prong 1

Fundamental concepts leverage algae to teach core principles: in photosynthesis, exploring light-dependent and light-independent reactions, with an emphasis on chlorophyll’s role in energy capture; in biochemistry, examining metabolic pathways, such as carbon fixation and lipid synthesis; and in bioprocess engineering, addressing bioreactor design and nutrient optimization for scalable cultivation.

Prong 2

Laboratory Experiments engages students with hands-on activities, such as cultivating algae to monitor growth and lipid content, extracting lipids using non-halogenated reagents, and simulating biofuel production via virtual reality labs, thus reducing carbon emissions while enhancing inclusivity.[60] [61] [62] [63]

Prong 3

Real-world applications connects theory to practice through case studies on algae-derived biofuels, bioplastics, and nutraceuticals, bolstered by industry partnerships and field trips to operational facilities.[64] These experiential opportunities, inspired by initiatives like the Algae Foundation’s specialized curricula, address the underrepresentation of scale-up concepts in traditional education. By embedding scale-themed instruction across laboratory and lecture settings, within and beyond microalgae contexts, educators can foster a comprehensive understanding of scalability principles, empowering students to innovate and implement algae technologies effectively.

Countering Perceived Barriers to Algae Cultivation

Addressing Presumed Killer arguments

Critics of algae cultivation with artificial lighting often cite presumed impediments: excessive energy demands for illumination and downstream processing, slow growth rates, low productivity, lack of scale-up experience, high water and land use (notably in open ponds), unresolved nutrient sourcing, contamination risks, uncertain public acceptance, competition from alternative innovations, and an unfavorable carbon footprint.[24] Additional concerns include the absence of large-scale success stories and economic viability limited to high-cost products. Yet, these critiques must be weighed against the broader challenge: What viable alternatives exist to replace naphtha in the chemical industry or the 19% of global oil consumption dedicated to plastics and chemicals? Algae cultivation may not be the sole solution, but its potential role is significant. Scientists cannot dictate which technologies achieve widespread adoption; rather, their role is to develop scalable, feasible options, empowering investors, and policymakers to make informed decisions within supportive political and economic frameworks (recommendation).

Leveraging ESG Trends

The rise of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) priorities among retail investors and consumers offers a compelling opportunity for algae technology. ESG investing enables individuals to align financial decisions with sustainability values, favoring innovations like algae cultivation that address climate change, resource scarcity, and social good. Algae-based systems, with their capacity to recycle CO₂ into valuable products, appeal to this growing cohort, providing a tangible avenue for investment in planetary and societal benefits. Similarly, consumer demand for ethically sourced, sustainable products creates a market for algae-derived goods (e.g., biofuels and nutraceuticals), particularly when produced via greener methods.[65] As technological advancements lower costs and enhance scalability, consumer and investor support could accelerate adoption, amplifying algae’s contribution to a sustainable economy.

Streamlining Development with Strategic Assessments

Algae’s evolutionary resilience, honed over billions of years in extreme conditions, underscores its ecological importance and adaptability, qualities that argue against stifling early stage research with premature life-cycle assessments (LCAs).

However, not every parameter can be expressed in a number for model insertion. System boundaries have to be defined which results in the popular “boundary critique to systems thinking” of LCA.[66] International Norms according to ISO 14044 are a reasonable path to follow. An LCA includes a life-cycle inventory and a life-cycle impact assessments. Our recommendation is to follow the guideline of the Technical Standards Committee of the Algae Biomass Organization.[67]

Industry increasingly demands LCAs at the developmental outset, yet academic scientists are often unprepared for this expectation. A dual approach is warranted: provide researchers with LCA training and support, while deferring comprehensive assessments until technologies reach a significant scale. At that stage, LCAs employing metrics such as carbon footprint assessment can rigorously evaluate environmental impacts across different approaches, guiding optimization. Given algae’s foundational role in Earth’s ecosystems, policymakers and funding bodies should facilitate its development by easing early regulatory burdens, thus allowing innovation to mature before applying stringent sustainability benchmarks (recommendation).

Transforming the Funding Landscape

Realizing algae’s potential requires a fundamental shift in funding paradigms (recommendation). Traditional mechanisms favor established technologies, sidelining high-risk, high-reward innovations critical for disruptive change. Funding agencies should adopt a risk-tolerant stance, allocating resources to early stage projects with transformative potential, guided by clear scalability criteria. A stepwise funding model, releasing tranches contingent on proven milestones, independently verified by replicate setups from other research groups, could ensure robustness and transferability. While this verification process incurs additional costs, it mirrors the rigorous standards in fields like preparative chemistry (e.g., Organic Syntheses, www.orgsyn.org), where procedures are vetted before publication. Extending such validation across disciplines would enhance confidence in scalable algae technologies, fostering investment and development (recommendation).

Economic and Cultural Dimensions

Economic viability remains a formidable barrier, as fossil-derived products currently outcompete algae-based alternatives on cost. Addressing this demands a multifaceted strategy: optimizing cultivation and processing efficiency, boosting product yields, and identifying new markets for algae-derived goods. Simultaneously, cultural perceptions must evolve. In regions like Germany, garden centers stock algae-killing products but lack cultivation kits, reflecting a societal bias against algae despite their ecological value and resilience. Initiatives promoting home algae cultivation could shift this mindset, leveraging nature’s toolbox to tackle climate challenges (recommendation).[65] Marketing strategies should emphasize positive attributes of algae-based products,[68] [69] while systematically analyzing and addressing potential public apprehensions to build acceptance and support widespread adoption.

Debottlenecking the Algae Value Chain

Establishing a robust value chain for large-scale algae cultivation in photobioreactors requires addressing multiple interdependent elements, yet the primary bottleneck lies in scaling the cultivation process itself ([Fig. 5]). Downstream processing and product formulation can draw on established infrastructures from chemistry, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology sectors: systems that, while not fully optimized for energy and resource efficiency, provide a foundation for adaptation.[70] [71] In contrast, the cultivation stage lacks scalable, cost-effective technologies to address a scale of >1000 tons of product per algae facility per year, a gap that innovative resource utilization strategies partially mitigate. For instance, capturing heat generated during cultivation via integration with bioenergy façades or heat pumps can reduce fossil fuel dependency for heating, while redirecting dissipated energy from artificial lighting enhances overall efficiency (recommendation). Technoeconomic analyses reveal persistent cost disparities in photobioreactor facilities, despite their advantages,[23] underscoring the need for integrated systems that optimize cultivation conditions, harvesting, and extraction to deliver sustainable, economically viable products across diverse applications.

Fig. 5 Overall algae-based value chain highlighting important elements and the scale-up-bottleneck when addressing a scale large than 1,000 tons/year/facility. Created in BioRender. Choo, Y. (2025) https://BioRender.com/m59w914

Algal Contribution to a Biorefinery

The barriers to commercial deployment of a fossil-free biorefinery where microalgal biomass can contribute a share of the biomass input mirror those faced by other bio-based industries—spanning technological, financial, policy, and societal dimensions.[72] In all these dimensions coordinated efforts are needed across the innovation chain, from early R&D through demonstration and commercialization, with particular emphasis on derisking technological development, improving process understanding, ensuring robustness of biomass feedstock supply, and securing economic viability. Being the main focus of our policy report, we see the successful scale-up of microalgae cultivation to 1000+ tons as the main challenge. Only if this challenge is solved, subsequent points such as the integration of a biorefineries into a local region and system can be addressed. This means implement synergies of microalgae cultivation with process coupling with, for example, environmental remediation,[73] using excess heat from artificial-illuminated algae cultures in local heat networks or coupled with heat pumps.

Interdisciplinary Collaboration as a Catalyst

Academic research has elucidated the breadth of algae-derived value-added products, yet translating these insights into industrial-scale technologies remains elusive due to constraints in funding, facilities, and expertise. Researchers alone cannot surmount these barriers; interdisciplinary collaboration is imperative. By uniting computational modeling expertise (e.g., simulations to predict scale-up performance) with industrial partnerships, the transition from lab-scale (e.g., 3 – 5 g/L/day yields) to pilot and commercial operations becomes feasible. Industry provides critical resources and practical know-how, complementing academic innovation with the infrastructure needed to test and refine processes. This synergy is essential to debottleneck the value chain, ensuring that advancements in cultivation, harvesting, and downstream processing align with the economic and environmental imperatives of a bio-based economy.

Define Scale Needed

The pressing need to replace fossil fuels with sustainable alternatives demands clarity on what constitutes “large scale” for algae cultivation. A baseline metric of 1 m³ yielding 1 ton annually is often cited, with potential optimization and genetic engineering pushing yields to 3 – 10 tons per m³ per year. Yet, this pales against global demand: the 2.8 million m³ of oil consumed daily for plastics and chemicals equates to an annual need far exceeding current algae capabilities. To substitute this with algae-based products, a cultivation volume of approximately 500 million m³ would be required, which is equivalent to 1000 tanks, each 10 m high and 100 m in diameter, or the total global onshore oil storage capacity.

This scale can be illustratively framed: if all current beer and wine fermentation vessels worldwide were repurposed for algae cultivation, they could approximate the capacity needed to match annual plastic production.[74] This stark comparison underscores both the monumental challenge and the transformative opportunity of scaling algae technology to meet global material demands sustainably.

Trends and Outlooks

The global microalgae market size is anticipated to grow due to the increasing demand of finding new nature-based sustainable solutions to replace fossil-fuel-driven sources and to contribute to the UN SDGs.[75] Drastic advancement in technologies compared to 10 years ago[76] (e.g., artificial intelligence, data analytics, efficient artificial lighting) and new upcoming technology such as quantum computing, as well as geopolitical changes, shift the focus in algae technology to new future topics. Consumer-driven sustainability trends in the field of bioplastics, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics are also expected to influence microalgae demand in a positive way.

Technology and Innovation

In order to apply big data on microalgae, we anticipate the massive generation of training data and reference dataset for grow optimization using artificial intelligence and machine learning.[10] Digital twins, advances in CFD and predictive modeling will accompany such developments.

Advanced Engineering

New advanced photobioreactor designs, especially based on artificial lighting or hybrid systems are expected to boost innovation in the field of algae cultivation.

Synthetic Biology

This includes development of robust, high-productivity strains,[34] new optimized catalytic cycles for improved CO₂ fixation,[77] as well as future-oriented research such as biohybrid microalgae robots.[33d]

International Collaboration, Standardization and Piloting

Ongoing work and growth of international algae association, such as the European Algae Biomass Association or the Algae Biomass Organization help to raise standards, which will allow benchmarking of technological developments. Furthermore, initiatives as Pilots4U at Bio Base Europe Pilot facilitate easy testing of new idea on pilot scale.

System integration

When algae technology enters 1000+ tons annual production regime per facility the system integration with heat networks in using excess heat from artificial lighting or remediation of industrial waste streams may be an important success factor for adoption of algal biorefineries. Purely artificial-illuminated large-scale microalgae cultivation systems can be used for electric grid balancing.

Infrastructure Independence and Resilience

Geopolitical instabilities shift focus on the development of energy and supply securities as well as diversification and decentralized bio-based production.

Space Research

In the race to Mars and a permanent lunar station, the development of a real circular system for the long-term survival of astronauts based only on solar energy and without regular supply of food and oxygen will boost photobioreactor technology, as current concepts include microalgae cultivation as a central part of such systems.[78]

Conclusion and Recommendations

The urgent transition from fossil fuels to renewable sources is pivotal for global sustainability, and algae, as CO₂-binding microfactories, offer a viable alternative to crude oil for carbon-based raw materials. Unlike traditional biomass approaches, algae cultivation with artificial lighting at an industrial scale avoids overexploitation of natural ecosystems, biodiversity loss, and competition with agricultural land. This policy report consolidates our assessment into targeted recommendations to drive this transition, summarized below.

To ensure sustainability, technological development must prioritize minimal land, bioresource, and raw material inputs. The scientific community should reject scale-up failures as an acceptable excuse, embracing an ethos that rewards successful realization of scalable processes. Education is foundational: universities, colleges, and institutes must equip students with practical skills in algae cultivation, engineering, and scale-up, fostering innovation through an integrated three-pronged approach: fundamental concepts, laboratory experiments, and real-world applications. Funding and publishing policies should incentivize scalability by introducing metrics beyond TRLs, assessing maturity in terms of industrial accessibility and volume potential, with grant allocations staggered based on proven milestones.

Advancements in algae technology should focus on high-productivity strains with bacterial-like growth rates, accompanied by risk assessments for genetically modified variants in enclosed systems. Biofilm formation, a key economic challenge, requires deeper process understanding and photobioreactor designs that predict, control, or mitigate its impact through cost-effective cleaning methods. New photobioreactor designs optimized for artificial lighting and cost-efficient scale-up in three dimensions are critical, leveraging complete parameter control to enhance scalability and optimize growth conditions economically. Large-scale facilities exceeding 1000 tons annually are essential to demonstrate feasibility for high-volume products; without this, algae technology risks remaining a niche solution.

Research must shift from short-term, publication-driven studies to long-term, impactful solutions, with continuous operation as a standard. Funding structures should adopt risk-tolerant approaches, supporting novel scale-up strategies and verifying scalability through independent replication, akin to standards in preparative chemistry journals. Policies should address multiple UN SDGs holistically, avoiding narrow focus, while government and funding bodies facilitate algae’s development, further recognizing its evolutionary robustness by minimizing early regulatory burdens.

Economic viability hinges on overcoming bottlenecks through efficient cultivation, harvesting, and processing, integrating algae into broader industrial ecosystems. Cultural acceptance is equally vital: public perception must shift to value algae’s climate-solving potential, supported by marketing that counters misconceptions. Scientists should provide scalable options for policymakers and investors, not dictate implementation, ensuring that informed decisions promote acceptance.

In conclusion, algae cultivation with artificial lighting offers a transformative path to sustainability, contingent on concerted action across technology, education, funding, and society. These recommendations aim to catalyze scientific discourse and practical solutions, aligning with the UN SDGs to secure a resilient, bio-based future.

Timo Gehring

Timo Gehring is a Professor of Bio- and Environmental Process Engineering at htw saar — University of Applied Sciences (Saarbrücken, GER). He holds degrees in Chemistry, Mathematics, and Quality by Design from the University of Karlsruhe (GER) and De Montfort University (Leicester, UK). After his doctoral degree from the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in 2009 and post-docs in Paris, Oxford, and San Diego, he spent 12 years in industry. For 9 years, he was the head of production of a pharmaceutical company. Becoming professor in 2023, his research now focuses on algae technology, biotechnology process optimization, scale-up, (photo)bioreactor designs, and safety aspects of algae cultivation. He is a member of the board of trustees of the association “friends of the chemistry olympiad,” vize president of the section “bio-based value chains” at DECHEMA, chairman of the cluster “Food&Agriculture” of the joint collaboration efforts between “German University Consortium for International Cooperations” (DHIK) and the Technological Higher Education Network South Africa (THENSA) and member of the working group “Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI 2)” at national level. He has been a visiting professor at TUL (Lodz, POL) and is actively involved in academic mentorship and international collaborations.

Yvonne Shuen Lann Choo

Yvonne Shuen Lann Choo is an assistant professor at the School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia. She is also the co-founder of the Kelip-Kelip! Center of Excellence (CoE) for Light Enabling Technologies and has held the position of Programme Leader for Smart Human-Centric Technologies pillar. Being an organic chemist with experience in synthesizing photoactive organic molecules and polymers, her research interests revolve around designing and developing new stimuli responsive and shape-memory polymers for use in, but not limited to, 4D printing and energy applications. In addition, she is passionate about chemistry education (ChemEd) and science outreach, and has been an Element Awardee (Bohrium) of the IUPAC Periodic Table of Younger Chemists. She currently serves the Malaysian Institute of Chemistry (IKM) as a council member (2023–2026), the International Younger Chemists Network (IYCN) as a Malaysian Delegate, and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) as an Associate Member of CHEMRAWN (2024–2027) and as an SPT-SPEd Sub-Committee Member of the Polymer Division.

Juliana Vidal

Juliana Vidal (she/her) is a Senior Program Manager at Beyond Benign, where she is dedicated to supporting the incorporation of green chemistry into higher education institutions worldwide through the Green Chemistry Commitment (GCC) program. She completed her PhD at Memorial University of Newfoundland, investigating new applications for a sustainable material obtained from wood waste. As a Postdoctoral Researcher at McGill University, she helped to develop greener methods for the implementation of a marine biorefinery. Juliana is the co-chair of the Global Conversation on Sustainability (GCS) project, a National Representative of the IUPAC’s Committee on Chemical Research Applied to World Needs (CHEMRAWN), a Coordination Member of the Chemicals & Waste Platform of the United Nations Environment Programme Major Group for Children and Youth, an Associate Editor for the Sustainability & Circularity NOW journal from Thieme, and was selected as a Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Future Leader in 2020.

Fun Man Fung

Fun Man Fung is a chemistry professor at the University College Dublin, Ireland. Fun Man is well-known for his dedication to enhancing science education through the integration of digital tools. Fun Man earned his PhD from the National University of Singapore and is the lead editor of two books. The first, titled “10 Things You Must Know About the International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO),” published by World Scientific, serves as a comprehensive guide to this competition. The second, “Technology-Enabled Blended Learning Experiences for Chemistry Education and Outreach,” published by Elsevier, serves as a valuable resource for educators and researchers seeking to incorporate technology into chemistry education and its impact on fostering engaging learning experiences. An elected Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry of Ireland, Fun Man is a member of the Global Young Academy, hosted at the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina in Halle (Saale), and a Fulbright Scholar at Stanford University (2025).

Conflict of Interest

Timo Gehring filed patent applications on photobioreactor technologies (DE 10 2024 114 270.7, EP24190886.2 and EP24182686.6). The authors declare no other conflict of interest.

Acknowledgment

We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Anna Klepacz-Smółka, Dr. Patrick Maurer, Christina Karhan, Mutlu Yildirim and Elias Friedrich for fruitful discussions and feedback to the manuscript.

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Publication History

Received: 06 April 2025

Accepted after revision: 02 December 2025

Article published online:
19 January 2026