Subscribe to RSS
DOI: 10.1055/a-2215-9003
Integration of Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation into the Management of High-Risk Pulmonary Embolism: An Overview of Current Evidence
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Advanced Therapies for High-Risk PE
- Potential Value of PERT in Patients Requiring ECMO
- Practical Aspects of ECMO Placement
- Reperfusion Strategies for Patients on ECMO
- Indications for ECMO and Integration into the Management of High-Risk PE
- Conclusion
- References
Abstract
High-risk pulmonary embolism (PE) refers to a large embolic burden causing right ventricular failure and hemodynamic instability. It accounts for approximately 5% of all cases of PE but contributes significantly to overall PE mortality. Systemic thrombolysis is the first-line revascularization therapy in high-risk PE. Surgical embolectomy or catheter-directed therapy is recommended in patients with an absolute contraindication to systemic thrombolysis. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) provides respiratory and hemodynamic support for the most critically ill PE patients with refractory cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest. The complex management of these individuals requires urgent yet coordinated multidisciplinary care. In light of existing evidence regarding the utility of ECMO in the management of high-risk PE patients, a number of possible indications for ECMO utilization have been suggested in the literature. Specifically, in patients with refractory cardiac arrest, resuscitated cardiac arrest, or refractory shock, including in cases of failed thrombolysis, venoarterial ECMO (VA-ECMO) should be considered, either as a bridge to percutaneous or surgical embolectomy or as a bridge to recovery after surgical embolectomy. We review here the current evidence on the use of ECMO as part of the management strategy for the highest-risk presentations of PE and summarize the latest data in this indication.
#
Keywords
pulmonary embolism - extracorporeal membrane oxygenation - pulmonary revascularization - multidisciplinary careIntroduction
Pulmonary embolism (PE) ranks high among the causes of cardiovascular mortality.[1] [2] Most patients who die from PE remain undiagnosed throughout their lives,[3] and many succumb suddenly or within a few hours of the acute event before therapy can be initiated or take effect.[4] Most deaths due to PE within the first 3 months of follow-up occur during the first week after diagnosis.[5] [6] Mortality from PE as reported in large registries ranges from 5.4 to 10.5% at 3 months, with the majority of deaths occurring early after the index event.[7] [8] [9] [10]
The mortality and morbidity of patients with acute PE vary by clinical presentation, the presence of comorbid disease, and other underlying factors. Estimation of prognosis helps with prioritization of appropriate management strategies.[11] [12] [13] Studies have shown that risk stratification and use of a management pathway for hospitalized patients with acute PE reduces the length of hospital stay without compromising safety,[14] and this might be associated with improved short-term survival.[15] Overall, most patients treated with anticoagulant therapy (i.e., low- and intermediate-low-risk PE, according to the European Society of Cardiology [ESC] risk stratification[13]) survive and do not have a recurrent event or a major complication associated with therapy.[16] [17] However, patients with evidence of right ventricular (RV) dysfunction and myocardial injury (i.e., intermediate-high-risk PE) have a short-term mortality rate of approximately 10%.[18] High-risk PE includes patients with arterial hypotension, cardiogenic shock, and those suffering of a cardiac arrest. This critical condition occurs in fewer than 5% of patients with acute symptomatic PE,[19] but is associated with an overall mortality rate of up to 30%, which increases to 65% in case of a cardiac arrest.[20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] Patients with high-risk PE require prompt therapeutic anticoagulation and additional advanced therapies to improve clinical outcomes.[27]
#
Advanced Therapies for High-Risk PE
The armamentarium of treatment options for the management of high-risk PE includes various systemic thrombolytic regimens, surgical embolectomy, lysis and nonlysis catheter-directed therapies (CDT), and mechanical circulatory support ([Fig. 1]).
Systemic Thrombolysis
Only one small randomized controlled trial has compared thrombolytic therapy plus anticoagulation with anticoagulation alone in patients with “life-threatening” PE.[28] In that study, none of the four patients who received systemic streptokinase died, whereas the four patients who received heparin died. In addition to the small sample size, the study was limited by an imbalance between groups, since the four patients allocated to heparin treatment were admitted for an acute episode of unstable PE despite previous therapeutic anticoagulation. A systematic review and meta-analysis identified four randomized controlled trials comparing anticoagulation plus systemic thrombolysis with anticoagulation alone for 130 patients with acute PE (including high-risk PE).[29] Thrombolytic treatment was associated with a significant reduction of PE-related mortality (odds ratio [OR], 0.15; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.03–0.78, p < 0.001). Although the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) guidelines and the American Heart Association Scientific Statement recommend the use of thrombolytic therapy for patients with acute symptomatic PE and hemodynamic instability and in those who do not have major contraindications due to bleeding risk,[12] [30] the RIETE registry showed that only one-fifth of 1,207 unstable patients with acute PE actually received reperfusion therapies in clinical practice.[19]
#
Surgical Embolectomy
Nowadays, surgical embolectomy is considered for patients with acute PE after failure of thrombolysis or when thrombolysis is contraindicated.[27] [31] Approximately 40% of patients have contraindications to systemic thrombolysis, and 8 to 22% have failed thrombolysis.[32] [33] Postoperative in-hospital mortality ranges from 2.3 to 13.2%, mostly associated with the need for preoperative cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).[34] In addition, failed thrombolysis is associated with compromised postsurgical outcomes.[33] [35]
#
Catheter-Directed Therapy
Catheter-directed therapy (CDT) for the treatment of acute PE includes catheter-directed thrombolysis, pharmacomechanical therapy, and mechanical embolectomy. The evidence base for the efficacy and safety of these techniques is largely based on observational studies with surrogate endpoints, and there are no randomized controlled trials with adequate power to evaluate clinical outcomes.[36]
Ultrasound Facilitated Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
The diffusion of high-frequency ultrasound within the thrombus is thought to enhance the action of the thrombolytic therapy by disaggregating the fibrin fibers.[37] The EKOS Endovascular System (Boston Scientific, Marlborough, MA, United States) is currently the device with the largest body of available evidence. The Prospective, Single-Arm, Multi-Center Trial of EkoSonic Endovascular System and Activase for Treatment of Acute Pulmonary Embolism (SEATTLE) II trial evaluated the safety and efficacy of ultrasound-facilitated, catheter-directed thrombolysis in 150 patients with high-risk (n = 31) or intermediate-risk (n = 119) acute PE.[38] The decrease in the mean RV-to-left ventricle (LV) diameter ratio from baseline to 48 ± 6 hours was similar in high- and intermediate-high-risk PE patients (–0.51 vs. –0.43; p = 0.31). Likewise, the decrease in mean pulmonary artery systolic pressure from baseline to procedure completion (–12.6 vs. –14.3; p = 0.61) and from baseline to 48 ± 6 hours (–14.2 vs. –15.0; p = 0.81) was also similar in high-risk and intermediate-high-risk PE patients. High-risk PE patients were more likely to experience major bleeding than intermediate-high-risk PE patients (23 vs. 7%, p = 0.02). The OPTALYSE-PE study demonstrated the advantages of reducing both the duration and dose of in situ thrombolysis.[39] The results of the OPTALYSE-PE study, with clinical follow-up at 1 year, showed that there was a persistent improvement in RV systolic function, associated with an improvement in functional capacity as assessed by a 6-minute walk test, as well as an improvement in quality of life.[40]
Moreover, two randomized trials tested the ultrasound-facilitated catheter-directed thrombolysis strategy. In the ULTIMA (the Ultrasound Accelerated Thrombolysis of Pulmonary Embolism) trial, 59 patients with PE and RV dysfunction were randomized to receive either heparin alone (n = 29) or heparin plus in situ thrombolysis (10–20 mg tissue plasminogen activator [tPA]) facilitated by ultrasound (n = 30). The primary endpoint, namely, the difference in the RV/LV ratio from baseline to 24 hours, was significantly improved in the endovascular group compared to the heparin alone group (0.30 ± 0.20 vs. 0.03 ± 0.16; p < 0.001). Recently, the CANARY randomized trial included 85 patients who received CDT (54.1%) or anticoagulation therapy alone (45.9%). The study was prematurely stopped due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The median (interquartile range [IQR]) 3-month RV/LV ratio was significantly lower with CDT (0.7 [0.6–0.7]) than with anticoagulation (0.8 [0.7–0.9); p = 0.01). An RV/LV ratio greater than 0.9 at 72 hours after randomization was observed in fewer patients treated with CDT (13 of 48 [27.0%]) than with anticoagulation (24 of 46 [52.1%]; OR, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.14–0.80; p = 0.01). Fewer patients assigned to CDT experienced a 3-month composite of death or RV/LV greater than 0.9 (2 of 48 [4.3%] vs. 8 of 46 [17.3%]; OR, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.04–1.03; p = 0.048).[41]
The potential drawback of ultrasound-facilitated catheter-directed thrombolysis is the time required for the treatment to take effect in unstable patients.
#
Catheter-Directed Thrombectomy
Some single-arm studies have evaluated the efficacy of mechanical thrombectomy devices to extract clots from the pulmonary arteries, but specific data for the subgroup of high-risk PE patients are lacking.[42] [43] The single-armed FlowTriever Pulmonary Embolectomy Clinical Study (FLARE) trial evaluated the FlowTriever System in 106 intermediate-risk PE patients, and showed that, among patients with elevated mean pulmonary artery pressure at baseline, there was a drop of 3.2 mm Hg postprocedure (from 34.7 ± 7.1 to 31.5 ± 7.7 mm Hg; p < 0.0001).[42] The FlowTriever All-Comer Registry for Patient Safety and Hemodynamics (FLASH) registry evaluated the FlowTriever in 800 patients, 7.9% of whom had high-risk PE.[43] Mortality for the total cohort was 0.8% at 30 days with no device-related deaths.
The Prospective, Multicenter Trial to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of the Indigo Aspiration System in Acute Pulmonary Embolism (EXTRACT-PE) enrolled 119 intermediate-risk PE patients for treatment with the 8-Fr Indigo system. The intervention reduced the primary outcome of the RV/LV ratio from 1.47 ± 0.30 at baseline to 1.04 ± 0.16 at 48 hours postprocedure. There were three major adverse events occurring in two (1.7%) patients, including one death due to distal vessel perforation.[44]
More recently, the FLAME study reported a significant reduction in the primary composite endpoint of all-cause mortality, bailout to alternate thrombus removal strategy, clinical deterioration, or major bleeding in high-risk PE patients (17.0% in the FlowTriever group vs. 63.9% with other therapies).[45]
These results remain to be confirmed in large-scale, randomized trials. Clinical practice guidelines suggest CDT for high-risk PE patients who also have (1) a high bleeding risk, (2) failed systemic thrombolysis, or (3) shock that is likely to cause death before systemic thrombolysis can take effect, if appropriate expertise and resources are available.[12]
#
#
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
Temporary circulatory support (venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation [VA-ECMO]) may alleviate the failing RV without direct intervention on the clot burden. VA-ECMO offers cardiac support via an inflow cannula from the femoral vein and an outflow cannula via a peripheral artery, and it is a feasible option for salvage therapy in unstable patients.[46] In fact, contemporary data have shown increasing use of ECMO for patients with high-risk PE. Elbadawi et al evaluated 77,809 hospitalizations for high-risk PE and found an upward trend in the utilization of ECMO from 0.07% in 2005 to 1.1% in 2013 (p = 0.015).[47] In-hospital mortality for patients receiving ECMO did not change over the observational period (p = 0.68). Independent predictors of increased mortality in patients with high-risk PE using ECMO include age, female sex, obesity, congestive heart failure, and chronic pulmonary disease.[47]
Unless contraindicated, all patients should be anticoagulated while on ECMO, usually with a heparin drip. Recent systemic thrombolysis is not an absolute contraindication for VA-ECMO.[34]
#
#
Potential Value of PERT in Patients Requiring ECMO
There are minimal high-quality data to guide strategies for patients with high-risk PE given (1) the lack of well-designed randomized trials, (2) the relatively infrequent incidence at individual centers, and (3) the difficulty in enrolling critically ill patients. In addition, ECMO is a complex technique associated with intensive resource consumption. In this regard, pulmonary embolism response teams (PERTs) may help select appropriate management for high-risk patients with acute PE and identify those who may benefit from ECMO implantation.[48] [49] [50] A PERT is composed of a multidisciplinary group of specialists to treat patients with life-threatening PE.[51] The aim is to coordinate the diagnosis and treatment of PE with a team of physicians from different specialties (e.g., cardiac surgery, critical care, emergency medicine, hematology, interventional and noninterventional cardiology, interventional radiology, pulmonary medicine, vascular medicine, vascular surgery, and pharmacy). One of the main advantages of a PERT is that this multidisciplinary approach occurs in real time and allows for rapid evaluation of risks, formulation of an individualized treatment plan for each patient, and mobilization of appropriate resources to provide the highest quality of care to patients with PE.[52] For patients with acute PE (including those with hemodynamically unstable PE), the effect of PERTs on survival is not well known. In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of nine controlled studies, there was no difference in mortality (risk ratio [RR], 0.89; 95% CI, 0.67–1.19) by comparing the pre-PERT with the PERT era.[53] When analyses were restricted to patients with intermediate- or high-risk PE, short-term mortality tended to be lower for patients treated in the PERT era compared to those treated in the pre-PERT era (RR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.45–1.12). The use of advanced therapies was higher (RR, 2.67; 95% CI, 1.29–5.50), and the in-hospital stay was shorter (mean difference, –1.6 days) in the PERT era compared to the pre-PERT era. Particularly, among the 1,532 patients with intermediate- and high-risk PE who were managed by a PERT, 3% (34/1,018) received ECMO.[53]
Some reports suggest that higher annual ECMO volume (i.e., more experience) and implementation of a multidisciplinary team-based approach to ECMO care might improve survival to hospital discharge.[54] [55] Although it remains to be clarified whether it is experience itself or a protocolized approach that is needed for improved outcomes, a multidisciplinary team approach to the management of severe PE and ECMO care seems reasonable.
#
Practical Aspects of ECMO Placement
The main purpose of VA-ECMO is to provide temporary cardiopulmonary support as a bridge to recovery from acute PE. Indications are not based on prospective randomized clinical trials, and therefore, the placement of circulatory assistance is often driven by subjective consideration of a risk of imminent death from cardiopulmonary failure. In daily clinical practice, this concerns patients with cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest. Relative contraindications to VA-ECMO include uncontrollable bleeding or other contraindications to systemic anticoagulation. There are few absolute contraindications, but they include unwitnessed asystole and preexisting or acute conditions that are incompatible with recovery.[56] Cannulation for ECMO can be performed via the central or peripheral approach.[57] The peripheral approach has become very common and can be placed percutaneously or through a surgical cut-down. Percutaneous access is often preferred because the patient can be cannulated while undergoing CPR, in any setting.[56] Peripheral VA-ECMO is classically accomplished through the femoral vessels. ECMO should be implanted under local anesthesia with procedural sedation in a spontaneously breathing patient to avoid any additional increase in the RV afterload and risk of hemodynamic compromise related to mechanical ventilation.[58] Moreover, hemorrhagic complications must be anticipated, especially after failed thrombolysis. Indeed, reported major bleeding rates range from 3.2% in nationwide registries[59] to 12.2% in individual studies evaluating the management of high-risk PE with ECMO support.[60]
Puncture is performed under ultrasound guidance with a 25- to 29-Fr venous cannula and a 15- to 19-Fr arterial cannula inserted, respectively, into the femoral vein and artery using Seldinger's technique. The venous cannula should be inserted at the junction of the right atrium and the superior vena cava, and the arterial cannula in the thoracic descending aorta. Placement of the venous cannula is performed with echocardiographic guidance and, if possible, with the use of fluoroscopy. A 6-Fr distal perfusion catheter is placed in the ipsilateral superficial femoral artery to prevent lower limb ischemia. Anticoagulant therapy with unfractionated heparin is mandatory unless contraindicated, with a target activated clotting time of 180 to 220 seconds.[61]
#
Reperfusion Strategies for Patients on ECMO
The therapeutic management of high-risk PE requiring ECMO support remains controversial due to limited evidence, from small observational studies, and a lack of randomized controlled trials. Three different situations involving circulatory assistance in PE patients can be distinguished. First, ECMO may be implanted as a destination therapy while waiting for the action of physiological fibrinolysis to take effect. Second, it may be considered as a bridge to reperfusion therapy, such as surgical embolectomy or catheter-based clot extraction. Third, VA-ECMO may be considered as an adjunctive hemodynamic support after failed thrombolysis or surgical embolectomy.
Four reperfusion therapy options can be considered, namely, ECMO with associated anticoagulation as a stand-alone treatment; or ECMO plus one of three advanced pulmonary reperfusion strategies, that is, ECMO+ systemic thrombolysis, ECMO+ CDT, or ECMO+ surgical embolectomy.[62] [63] Overall, the primary strategy used in combination with ECMO was anticoagulation alone for 34.3%, systemic thrombolysis for 27.3%, CDT for 5.5%, and surgical or catheter-based embolectomy for 33.3% ([Table 1]).[63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82]
Study |
Study period |
N |
Age (y) |
Cardiac arrest (%) |
Primary reperfusion strategy (%) |
Mortality rate (% per method) |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
Surgery[a] |
CDT |
Systemic thrombolysis |
ECMO alone |
Surgery[a] |
CDT |
Systemic thrombolysis |
ECMO alone |
Al-Bawardy et al[64] |
2012–2018 |
13 |
49 ± 19 |
13 (100.0) |
4 (30.8) |
2 (15.4) |
6 (46.1) |
1 (7.7) |
2 (50.0) |
1 (50.0) |
3 (50.0) |
0 (0) |
Corsi et al[63] |
2006–2015 |
17 |
51 ± 15.9 |
2 (11.8) |
4 (23.5) |
0 (0) |
8 (47.0) |
5 (29.4) |
1 (25.0) |
0 (0) |
2 (25.0) |
3 (60.0) |
Dolmatova et al[65] |
2011–2015 |
5 |
52 ± 11.5 |
4 (80.0) |
1 (20.0) |
0 (0) |
3 (60.0) |
1 (20.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
1 (100.0) |
0 (0) |
George et al[66] |
2012–2015 |
32 |
56 [Q1–Q3: 46–66] |
15 (46.0) |
6 (18.7) |
16 (50.0) |
5 (15.6) |
5 (15.6) |
2 (33.3) |
4 (66.6) |
5 (100.0) |
0 (0) |
Ghoreishi et al[67] |
2015–2018 |
41 |
51 ± 15 |
12 (29.2) |
11 (26.8) |
0 (0) |
9 (21.9) |
21 (51.2) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
1 (4.8) |
Ius et al[69] |
2012–2018 |
36 |
56 (range: 18–79) |
15 (41.7) |
20 (55.5) |
0 (0) |
9 (25.0) |
7 (19.4) |
1 (0.5) |
0 (0) |
8 (88.9) |
3 (42.8) |
Kjaergaard et al[70] |
2004–2017 |
36 |
55 ± 16.7 |
6 (28.6) |
4 (11.1) |
0 (0) |
22 (61.1) |
10 (27.8) |
1 (25.0) |
0 (0) |
5 (23.8) |
5 (50.0) |
Luna-López et al[72] |
2013–2018 |
11 |
60 ± 8.5 |
9 (81.8) |
5 (45.4) |
0 (0) |
3 (27.2) |
3 (27.2) |
1 (20.0) |
0 (0) |
2 (66.6) |
1 (33.3) |
Maj et al[74] |
– |
6 |
– |
6 (100.0) |
1 (16.6) |
2 (33.3) |
2 (33.3) |
1 (16.6) |
1 (50.0) |
1 (100.0) |
2 (100.0) |
0 (0) |
Malekan et al[75] |
2005–2011 |
4 |
46.8 ± 20 |
0 (0) |
1 (25.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
3 (75.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
Meneveau et al[76] |
2014–2015 |
52 |
47.6 ± 15 |
39 (75.0) |
17 (32.7) |
0 (0) |
17 (32.7) |
18 (34.6) |
4 (23.5) |
0 (0) |
13 (76.5) |
14 (77.8) |
Miyazaki et al[77] |
2014–2017 |
9 |
50 ± 16.1 |
9 (100.0) |
1 (11.1) |
0 (0) |
4 (44.4) |
4 (44.4) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
1 (25.0) |
Moon et al[78] |
2010–2017 |
14 |
53.6 ± 17.7 |
11 (78.6) |
1 (7.1) |
0 (0) |
1 (7.1) |
12 (85.7) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
9 (75.0) |
Munakata et al[79] |
1992–2008 |
10 |
61 ± 10.3 |
9 (90.0) |
8 (80.0) |
0 (0) |
2 |
0 (0) |
2 (20.0) |
(0) |
1 (50.0) |
0 (0) |
Oh et al[80] |
2014–2018 |
16 |
51 [Q1–Q3: 38–70] |
12 (75.0) |
9 (56.2) |
0 (0) |
4 (25.0) |
3 (18.7) |
4 (44.4) |
0 (0) |
2 (50.0) |
1 (33.3) |
Pasrija et al[81] |
2014–2016 |
20 |
47 [Q1–Q3: 32–59] |
5 (25.0) |
11 (55.0) |
1 (5.0) |
0 (0) |
8 (40.0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
1 (12.5) |
Swol et al[82] |
2008–2014 |
5 |
45 ± 6.3 |
5 (100.0) |
2 (40.0) |
0 (0) |
3 (60.0) |
0 |
1 (50.0) |
0 (0) |
2 (66.6) |
0 (0) |
Giraud et al[68] |
2010–2019 |
36 |
51 [IQR: 23] |
22 (61.1) |
17 (47.2) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
19 (52.8) |
11 (64.7) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
2 (10.5) |
Ltaief et al[71] |
2008–2020 |
18 |
57 [Q1–Q3: 47–66] |
16 (88.9) |
5 (27.7) |
0 (0) |
6 (33.3) |
7 (38.9) |
2 (50.0) |
0 (0) |
4 (66.6) |
7 (100.0) |
Abbreviations: CDT, catheter-directed therapy; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.
a Surgical embolectomy or catheter-directed embolectomy.
ECMO as Stand-Alone Therapy
Some authors have suggested using ECMO and anticoagulation as stand-alone therapy to improve the patient's hemodynamic status while waiting for heparin-induced or spontaneous endogenous thrombolysis to occur. Maggio et al reported outcomes of 21 PE patients managed with ECMO between 1992 and 2005 in a U.S. tertiary care facility. The mortality rate was 38%, and 76% of the patients who lived did not require any additional pulmonary reperfusion therapy. RV function recovery potentially related to clot dissolution enabled weaning from ECMO at 4.7 days among survivors.[73] Corsi et al reported their experience of 17 PE cases managed with ECMO support, of whom 41% were cannulated during CPR. The overall 90-day survival rate was 47%, and among survivors, 61% were managed with ECMO as a stand-alone approach.[63] Finally, a recently published study observed a favorable prognosis in 36 acute PE patients treated with ECMO only (58.3% with a contraindication to thrombolysis), with a 30-day mortality rate of 10.2%. However, a recent meta-analysis evaluating management strategies in high-risk PE patients requiring ECMO life support found that ECMO as a stand-alone approach was associated with worse outcome, with a mortality rate of 77.8% at 30 days, compared to 76.5% for ECMO plus systemic thrombolysis and 14.4% for ECMO plus surgical embolectomy ([Table 1]).[76] Based on the average ECMO weaning duration identified in observational studies, some authors have advocated waiting 5 days with ECMO and anticoagulation, and subsequently referring the patient to surgery if persistent RV dysfunction exists after this time period.[83]
#
ECMO and Systemic Thrombolysis
Population-based studies provide support for a survival benefit from thrombolysis in high-risk PE patients. Data from nationwide registries are conflicting regarding the value of systemic thrombolysis in combination with ECMO.[59] [86] In individual patient studies, the crude mortality rate observed in PE patients treated with thrombolysis and ECMO ranged from 50.0 to 100.0% ([Table 1]).[63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [69] [70] [71] [72] [74] [76] [77] [78] [80] [82] In a meta-analysis of 188 PE cases requiring ECMO, we observed a higher mortality among patients managed with systemic thrombolysis compared to those treated with surgical embolectomy (43.6 vs. 23.8%; pooled OR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.18–0.73).[60]
#
ECMO and Surgical Embolectomy
Small modern series of surgical embolectomy for the management of acute PE reported a dramatic improvement in postoperative in-hospital mortality, ranging from 2.3 to 13.2%, with mortality associated largely with preoperative CPR.[87] [88] [89] [90] We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 studies including a total of 327 PE patients managed with ECMO life support.[60] This study found that mechanical pulmonary reperfusion (including surgical [86%] and catheter-based embolectomy) seemed to be more effective than other strategies (i.e., systemic thrombolysis, catheter-directed thrombolysis, and stand-alone approach), for mitigating the mortality rate (OR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.24–0.82), and demonstrated a similar risk of bleeding (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.54–2.96). The timing of ECMO implantation, before or after pulmonary reperfusion, the use of more than one reperfusion strategy, and the clinical presentation of PE (i.e., cardiac arrest or refractory cardiogenic shock) did not affect the observed benefit of mechanical therapies.[60] The favorable effect of surgical embolectomy on mortality compared to other strategies was mainly driven by two studies published in the last 5 years. First, we published the largest (n = 52 patients) and only multicenter (n = 11 centers) individual cohort study to date on this topic. Our results showed an overall mortality rate of 41.2% with the surgical embolectomy approach (23.5% when surgical embolectomy was the only reperfusion strategy used) versus 76.5% with systemic thrombolysis and 77.8% with ECMO as stand-alone therapy.[76] Second, Ius et al reported a mortality rate of 5.0% in patients who underwent surgery (including 50% who received prior thrombolysis) and 69.0% in those who did not undergo surgery (9 patients [56.2%] treated with systemic thrombolysis in this group), among 36 patients with high-risk PE managed with ECMO ([Table 1]).[69]
#
ECMO and Catheter-Directed Therapy
Data regarding the use of CDT associated with ECMO in PE patients are sparse, with only four published studies, totaling 51 patients.[64] [66] [74] [91] The mortality rate was 25% among 16 patients treated with ultrasound-facilitated CDT versus 100% among 5 patients who received systemic thrombolysis in a retrospective analysis of an institution's ECMO database ([Table 1]).[66] Other authors recently showed preliminary evidence of the feasibility of percutaneous large-bore aspiration embolectomy in combination with ECMO support in a retrospective study of 15 patients included between April 2021 and August 2022. There was one periprocedural death in a patient who did not receive ECMO support following a periprocedural cardiac arrest. ECMO weaning was successful in the remaining patients (n = 14/15, 93.3%) after a mean of 5.4 days.[91]
#
#
Indications for ECMO and Integration into the Management of High-Risk PE
ECMO support appears suitable to reverse the hemodynamic impairment related to acute PE and bridge patients to further reperfusion therapies. Pulmonary surgical embolectomy seems to be associated with a higher rate of survival rate than other strategies. The 2019 ESC guidelines recommend considering ECMO support in patients with high-risk PE and cardiac arrest or refractory shock. Refractory shock is defined by: (1) sustained systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg; (2) evidence of end-organ hypoperfusion, (3) high-dose vasoactive drug infusion of at least two inotropes or vasopressors,[68] [92] (4) adequate volume loading.[93] [94]
The ESC guidelines propose referring patients to surgical or catheter-based embolectomy if ECMO is already initiated, while systemic thrombolysis should be used if ECMO is not initiated.[94] Nevertheless, it is not clear from evidence-based clinical practice guidelines whether ECMO is recommended in patients who remain unstable after thrombolysis.
A recent systematic review and meta-analysis assessed whether VA-ECMO improved survival of patients with acute PE.[62] Investigators identified a total of 29 observational studies (n = 1,947 patients; VA-ECMO, n = 1,138; control, n = 809), and did not find a significant difference between treated and control patients (RR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.71–1.16). For ECMO patients, age older than 60 years (RR, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.52–0.99) and pre-ECMO cardiac arrest (RR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.77–1.01) were associated with decreased survival, while surgical embolectomy was associated with increased survival (RR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.39–2.76)[62]
In light of existing evidence regarding the utility of ECMO in the management of high-risk PE patients, a number of possible indications for ECMO utilization have been suggested in the literature:
-
Resuscitation: In patients with resuscitated cardiac arrest, refractory cardiac arrest, or refractory shock, including cases of failed thrombolysis, VA-ECMO should be considered.[60] [95]
-
As a bridge to decision and possible intervention: VA-ECMO is also useful to stabilize PE patients with cardiogenic shock and affords clinicians the possibility to decide on further interventions such as systemic thrombolysis, percutaneous thrombectomy, or surgical embolectomy.[60] [68]
-
As a bridge to recovery after surgical embolectomy: Complications after surgical embolectomy include right heart failure, pulmonary edema, and hemoptysis.[60] VA-ECMO is usually the best option to manage these difficulties. In two recent series, the need for postoperative ECMO after embolectomy was rare, and strongly associated with preoperative CPR.[96] [97]
Age, obesity, comorbidities, life expectancy of less than 1 year, previous cardiac arrest with an unknown no-flow duration, and high lactate at implantation should be taken into consideration before indicating ECMO implantation.[47] [66]
We recently proposed an updated algorithm for the management of acute high-risk PE, which takes account of the activation of a PERT,[98] international guidelines for the management of acute PE,[12] [94] ELSO guidelines for the appropriate use of ECMO (www.elso.org), the JACC Scientific Expert Panel,[92] the European Resuscitation Council, and 2021 European Society of Intensive Care Medicine guidelines,[99] as well as recent data from individual studies.[60] We suggest that acute PE patients requiring ECMO for refractory cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest should be referred to surgical embolectomy (or percutaneous aspiration embolectomy), as a key reperfusion management, regardless of whether thrombolysis has been administered or not, regardless of the timing of ECMO implantation in the reperfusion timeline, and regardless of the clinical presentation at the time of ECMO implantation (i.e., shock or cardiac arrest). Although this algorithm has not been validated in clinical trials, it represents a synthesis of evidence-based approaches to the management of high-risk PE, which may help in guiding clinicians until further evidence becomes available. We updated this algorithm in [Fig. 2] by dichotomizing the management of cardiogenic shock and cardiac arrest. The role of ECMO as a stand-alone therapy will probably be downgraded in light of encouraging recent data from prospective studies of percutaneous thrombo-aspiration.[45] Nevertheless, additional data from cohort studies or randomized controlled trials are warranted to better define the optimal management of PE requiring ECMO, although previous randomized trials in such a severe patient category have been prematurely discontinued as a result of low inclusion rates.[100]
#
Conclusion
The use of ECMO in PE should be reserved for the most severe patients among those at high risk including cardiac arrest and refractory shock. The complex management of these individuals requires an urgent yet coordinated multidisciplinary care including PERT and ECMO teams. The challenge consists of identifying the therapeutic strategy behind the use of ECMO. In light of existing evidence regarding the utility of ECMO in the management of high-risk PE patients, a number of possible indications for ECMO utilization have been suggested in the literature. Specifically, in patients with refractory cardiac arrest, resuscitated cardiac arrest, or refractory shock, including in cases of failed thrombolysis, VA-ECMO should be considered, either as a bridge to percutaneous or surgical embolectomy or as a bridge to recovery after surgical embolectomy. There remains a compelling need for large-scale prospective cohorts or randomized trials to clearly define the value and place of ECMO in the management strategy of high-risk PE.
#
#
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
-
References
- 1 Office of the Surgeon General (US). National Heart Lung, and Blood Institute (US); The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. Rockville, MD:: Office of the Surgeon General (US);; 2008
- 2 White RH, Zhou H, Romano PS. Incidence of symptomatic venous thromboembolism after different elective or urgent surgical procedures. Thromb Haemost 2003; 90 (03) 446-455
- 3 Cohen AT, Agnelli G, Anderson FA. et al; VTE Impact Assessment Group in Europe (VITAE). Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in Europe. The number of VTE events and associated morbidity and mortality. Thromb Haemost 2007; 98 (04) 756-764
- 4 Donaldson GA, Williams C, Scannell JG, Shaw RS. A reappraisal of the application of the Trendelenburg operation to massive fatal embolism. Report of a successful pulmonary-artery thrombectomy using a cardiopulmonary bypass. N Engl J Med 1963; 268: 171-174
- 5 Conget F, Otero R, Jiménez D. et al. Short-term clinical outcome after acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2008; 100 (05) 937-942
- 6 Sánchez D, De Miguel J, Sam A. et al. The effects of cause of death classification on prognostic assessment of patients with pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (11) 2201-2207
- 7 Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Olschewski M. et al. Association between thrombolytic treatment and the prognosis of hemodynamically stable patients with major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. Circulation 1997; 96 (03) 882-888
- 8 Laporte S, Mismetti P, Décousus H. et al; RIETE Investigators. Clinical predictors for fatal pulmonary embolism in 15,520 patients with venous thromboembolism: findings from the Registro Informatizado de la Enfermedad TromboEmbolica venosa (RIETE) Registry. Circulation 2008; 117 (13) 1711-1716
- 9 PIOPED Investigators. Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism. Results of the prospective investigation of pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PIOPED). JAMA 1990; 263 (20) 2753-2759
- 10 Pollack CV, Schreiber D, Goldhaber SZ. et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57 (06) 700-706
- 11 Lobo JL, Alonso S, Arenas J. et al; En nombre del Panel Multidisciplinar para el Manejo de la TEP. Multidisciplinary consensus for the management of pulmonary thromboembolism. Arch Bronconeumol 2022; 58 (03) 246-254
- 12 Stevens SM, Woller SC, Baumann Kreuziger L. et al. Executive summary: antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: second update of the CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest 2021; 160 (06) 2247-2259
- 13 Konstantinides SV, Torbicki A, Agnelli G. et al; Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2014 ESC guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2014; 35 (43) 3033-3069 , 3069a–3069k
- 14 Jiménez D, Rodríguez C, León F. et al; IPEP investigators. Randomised controlled trial of a prognostic assessment and management pathway to reduce the length of hospital stay in normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Respir J 2022; 59 (02) 2100412
- 15 Barbero E, Bikdeli B, Chiluiza D. et al. Performance of early prognostic assessment independently predicts the outcomes in patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118 (04) 798-800
- 16 Jiménez D, de Miguel-Díez J, Guijarro R. et al; RIETE Investigators. Trends in the management and outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism: analysis from the RIETE registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016; 67 (02) 162-170
- 17 van Es N, Coppens M, Schulman S, Middeldorp S, Büller HR. Direct oral anticoagulants compared with vitamin K antagonists for acute venous thromboembolism: evidence from phase 3 trials. Blood 2014; 124 (12) 1968-1975
- 18 Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T. et al; PEITHO Investigators. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2014; 370 (15) 1402-1411
- 19 Jiménez D, Bikdeli B, Barrios D. et al; RIETE investigators. Epidemiology, patterns of care and mortality for patients with hemodynamically unstable acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Int J Cardiol 2018; 269: 327-333
- 20 Kucher N, Goldhaber SZ. Risk stratification of acute pulmonary embolism. Semin Thromb Hemost 2006; 32 (08) 838-847
- 21 Coon WW, Willis PW. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: prediction, prevention and treatment. Am J Cardiol 1959; 4: 611-621
- 22 Soloff LA, Rodman T. Acute pulmonary embolism. II. Clinical. Am Heart J 1967; 74 (06) 829-847
- 23 Dalen JE, Alpert JS. Natural history of pulmonary embolism. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1975; 17 (04) 259-270
- 24 Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A. et al. Management strategies and determinants of outcome in acute major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30 (05) 1165-1171
- 25 Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet 1999; 353 (9162) 1386-1389
- 26 Bahloul M, Chaari A, Kallel H. et al. Pulmonary embolism in intensive care unit: predictive factors, clinical manifestations and outcome. Ann Thorac Med 2010; 5 (02) 97-103
- 27 Piazza G. Advanced management of intermediate- and high-risk pulmonary embolism: JACC focus seminar. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 76 (18) 2117-2127
- 28 Jerjes-Sanchez C, Ramírez-Rivera A, Arriaga-Nava R. et al; de Lourdes García M. Streptokinase and heparin versus heparin alone in massive pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled trial. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1995; 2 (03) 227-229
- 29 Marti C, John G, Konstantinides S. et al. Systemic thrombolytic therapy for acute pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J 2015; 36 (10) 605-614
- 30 Giri J, Sista AK, Weinberg I. et al. Interventional therapies for acute pulmonary embolism: current status and principles for the development of novel evidence: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019; 140 (20) e774-e801
- 31 Delmas C, Aissaoui N, Meneveau N. et al. Reperfusion therapies in pulmonary embolism-state of the art and expert opinion: a position paper from the “Unité de Soins Intensifs de Cardiologie” group of the French Society of Cardiology. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2020; 113 (11) 749-759
- 32 Meneveau N, Séronde MF, Blonde MC. et al. Management of unsuccessful thrombolysis in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 2006; 129 (04) 1043-1050
- 33 Azari A, Bigdelu L, Moravvej Z. Surgical embolectomy in the management of massive and sub-massive pulmonary embolism: the results of 30 consecutive ill patients. ARYA Atheroscler 2015; 11 (03) 208-213
- 34 Goldberg JB, Giri J, Kobayashi T. et al. Surgical management and mechanical circulatory support in high-risk pulmonary embolisms: historical context, current status, and future directions: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2023; 147 (09) e628-e647
- 35 Aymard T, Kadner A, Widmer A. et al. Massive pulmonary embolism: surgical embolectomy versus thrombolytic therapy: should surgical indications be revisited?. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2013; 43 (01) 90-94 , discussion 94
- 36 Osho AA, Dudzinski DM. Interventional therapies for acute pulmonary embolism. Surg Clin North Am 2022; 102 (03) 429-447
- 37 Braaten JV, Goss RA, Francis CW. Ultrasound reversibly disaggregates fibrin fibers. Thromb Haemost 1997; 78 (03) 1063-1068
- 38 Piazza G, Hohlfelder B, Jaff MR. et al; SEATTLE II Investigators. A prospective, single-arm, multicenter trial of ultrasound-facilitated, catheter-directed, low-dose fibrinolysis for acute massive and submassive pulmonary embolism: the SEATTLE II study. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2015; 8 (10) 1382-1392
- 39 Tapson VF, Sterling K, Jones N. et al. A randomized trial of the optimum duration of acoustic pulse thrombolysis procedure in acute intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism: the OPTALYSE PE trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2018; 11 (14) 1401-1410
- 40 Piazza G, Sterling KM, Tapson VF. et al. One-year echocardiographic, functional, and quality of life outcomes after ultrasound-facilitated catheter-based fibrinolysis for pulmonary embolism. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2020; 13 (08) e009012
- 41 Sadeghipour P, Jenab Y, Moosavi J. et al. Catheter-directed thrombolysis vs anticoagulation in patients with acute intermediate-high-risk pulmonary embolism: the CANARY randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol 2022; 7 (12) 1189-1197
- 42 Tu T, Toma C, Tapson VF. et al; FLARE Investigators. a prospective, single-arm, multicenter trial of catheter-directed mechanical thrombectomy for intermediate-risk acute pulmonary embolism: the FLARE study. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 12 (09) 859-869
- 43 Toma C, Jaber WA, Weinberg MD. et al. Acute outcomes for the full US cohort of the FLASH mechanical thrombectomy registry in pulmonary embolism. EuroIntervention 2023; 18 (14) 1201-1212
- 44 Sista AK, Horowitz JM, Tapson VF. et al; EXTRACT-PE Investigators. Indigo aspiration system for treatment of pulmonary embolism: results of the EXTRACT-PE trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2021; 14 (03) 319-329
- 45 Silver MJ, Gibson CM, Giri J. et al Outcomes in High-Risk Pulmonary Embolism Patients Undergoing FlowTriever Mechanical Thrombectomy or Other Contemporary Therapies: Results From the FLAME Study. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2023; 16 (10) e013406
- 46 Carroll BJ, Shah RV, Murthy V. et al. Clinical features and outcomes in adults with cardiogenic shock supported by extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Am J Cardiol 2015; 116 (10) 1624-1630
- 47 Elbadawi A, Mentias A, Elgendy IY. et al. National trends and outcomes for extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation use in high-risk pulmonary embolism. Vasc Med 2019; 24 (03) 230-233
- 48 Provias T, Dudzinski DM, Jaff MR. et al. The Massachusetts General Hospital Pulmonary Embolism Response Team (MGH PERT): creation of a multidisciplinary program to improve care of patients with massive and submassive pulmonary embolism. Hosp Pract 2014; 42 (01) 31-37
- 49 Barnes GD, Kabrhel C, Courtney DM. et al; National PERT Consortium Research Committee. Diversity in the pulmonary embolism response team model: an organizational survey of the national PERT consortium members. Chest 2016; 150 (06) 1414-1417
- 50 Rivera-Lebron B, McDaniel M, Ahrar K. et al; PERT Consortium. Diagnosis, treatment and follow up of acute pulmonary embolism: consensus practice from the PERT consortium. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2019; 25: 10 76029619853037
- 51 Rosovsky R, Zhao K, Sista A, Rivera-Lebron B, Kabrhel C. Pulmonary embolism response teams: Purpose, evidence for efficacy, and future research directions. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2019; 3 (03) 315-330
- 52 Rosovsky R, Chang Y, Rosenfield K. et al. Changes in treatment and outcomes after creation of a pulmonary embolism response team (PERT), a 10-year analysis. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2019; 47 (01) 31-40
- 53 Hobohm L, Farmakis IT, Keller K. et al. Pulmonary embolism response team (PERT) implementation and its clinical value across countries: a scoping review and meta-analysis. Clin Res Cardiol 2023; 112 (10) 1351-1361
- 54 Tchantchaleishvili V, Hallinan W, Massey HT. Call for organized statewide networks for management of acute myocardial infarction-related cardiogenic shock. JAMA Surg 2015; 150 (11) 1025-1026
- 55 Dalia AA, Ortoleva J, Fiedler A, Villavicencio M, Shelton K, Cudemus GD. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is a team sport: institutional survival benefits of a formalized ECMO team. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2019; 33 (04) 902-907
- 56 Eckman PM, Katz JN, El Banayosy A, Bohula EA, Sun B, van Diepen S. Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for cardiogenic shock: an introduction for the busy clinician. Circulation 2019; 140 (24) 2019-2037
- 57 Banfi C, Pozzi M, Brunner ME. et al. Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: an overview of different cannulation techniques. J Thorac Dis 2016; 8 (09) E875-E885
- 58 Zhao S, Friedman O. Management of right ventricular failure in pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Clin 2020; 36 (03) 505-515
- 59 Nishimoto Y, Ohbe H, Matsui H. et al. Effectiveness of systemic thrombolysis on clinical outcomes in high-risk pulmonary embolism patients with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a nationwide inpatient database study. J Intensive Care 2023; 11 (01) 4
- 60 Chopard R, Nielsen P, Ius F. et al. Optimal reperfusion strategy in acute high-risk pulmonary embolism requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2022; 60 (05) 2102977
- 61 Levy JH, Staudinger T, Steiner ME. How to manage anticoagulation during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Intensive Care Med 2022; 48 (08) 1076-1079
- 62 Karami M, Mandigers L, Miranda DDR. et al; DUTCH ECLS Study Group. Survival of patients with acute pulmonary embolism treated with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care 2021; 64: 245-254
- 63 Corsi F, Lebreton G, Bréchot N. et al. Life-threatening massive pulmonary embolism rescued by venoarterial-extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit Care 2017; 21 (01) 76
- 64 Al-Bawardy R, Rosenfield K, Borges J. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a case series and review of the literature. Perfusion 2019; 34 (01) 22-28
- 65 Dolmatova EV, Moazzami K, Cocke TP. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in massive pulmonary embolism. Heart Lung 2017; 46 (02) 106-109
- 66 George B, Parazino M, Omar HR. et al. A retrospective comparison of survivors and non-survivors of massive pulmonary embolism receiving veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. Resuscitation 2018; 122: 1-5
- 67 Ghoreishi M, DiChiacchio L, Pasrija C. et al. Predictors of recovery in patients supported with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2020; 110 (01) 70-75
- 68 Giraud R, Laurencet M, Assouline B, De Charrière A, Banfi C, Bendjelid K. Can VA-ECMO be used as an adequate treatment in massive pulmonary embolism?. J Clin Med 2021; 10 (15) 3376
- 69 Ius F, Hoeper MM, Fegbeutel C. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and surgical embolectomy for high-risk pulmonary embolism. Eur Respir J 2019; 53 (04) 1801773
- 70 Kjaergaard B, Kristensen JH, Sindby JE, de Neergaard S, Rasmussen BS. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in life-threatening massive pulmonary embolism. Perfusion 2019; 34 (06) 467-474
- 71 Ltaief Z, Lupieri E, Bonnemain J, Ben-Hamouda N, Rancati V, Kobbe SS. et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in high-risk pulmonary embolism: a case series and literature review. RCM 2022;23(06):
- 72 Luna-López R, Sousa-Casasnovas I, García-Carreño J, Devesa-Cordero C, Fernández-Avilés F, Martínez-Sellés M. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenator in massive pulmonary embolism. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed) 2019; 72 (09) 793-794
- 73 Maggio P, Hemmila M, Haft J, Bartlett R. Extracorporeal life support for massive pulmonary embolism. J Trauma 2007; 62 (03) 570-576
- 74 Maj G, Melisurgo G, De Bonis M, Pappalardo F. ECLS management in pulmonary embolism with cardiac arrest: which strategy is better?. Resuscitation 2014; 85 (10) e175-e176
- 75 Malekan R, Saunders PC, Yu CJ. et al. Peripheral extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: comprehensive therapy for high-risk massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2012; 94 (01) 104-108
- 76 Meneveau N, Guillon B, Planquette B. et al. Outcomes after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for the treatment of high-risk pulmonary embolism: a multicentre series of 52 cases. Eur Heart J 2018; 39 (47) 4196-4204
- 77 Miyazaki K, Hikone M, Kuwahara Y, Ishida T, Sugiyama K, Hamabe Y. Extracorporeal CPR for massive pulmonary embolism in a “hybrid 2136 emergency department.”. Am J Emerg Med 2019; 37 (12) 2132-2135
- 78 Moon D, Lee SN, Yoo KD, Jo MS. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation improved survival in patients with massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Saudi Med 2018; 38 (03) 174-180
- 79 Munakata R, Yamamoto T, Hosokawa Y. et al. Massive pulmonary embolism requiring extracorporeal life support treated with catheter-based interventions. Int Heart J 2012; 53 (06) 370-374
- 80 Oh YN, Oh DK, Koh Y. et al. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with acute high-risk pulmonary embolism: a case series with literature review. Acute Crit Care 2019; 34 (02) 148-154
- 81 Pasrija C, Kronfli A, George P. et al. Utilization of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2018; 105 (02) 498-504
- 82 Swol J, Buchwald D, Strauch J, Schildhauer TA. Extracorporeal life support (ECLS) for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with pulmonary embolism in surgical patients: a case series. Perfusion 2016; 31 (01) 54-59
- 83 Assouline B, Assouline-Reinmann M, Giraud R. et al. Management of high-risk pulmonary embolism: what is the place of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation?. J Clin Med 2022; 11 (16) 4734
- 84 Stein PD, Matta F. Thrombolytic therapy in unstable patients with acute pulmonary embolism: saves lives but underused. Am J Med 2012; 125 (05) 465-470
- 85 Keller K, Hobohm L, Ebner M. et al. Trends in thrombolytic treatment and outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism in Germany. Eur Heart J 2020; 41 (04) 522-529
- 86 Hobohm L, Sagoschen I, Habertheuer A. et al. Clinical use and outcome of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with pulmonary embolism. Resuscitation 2022; 170: 285-292
- 87 QiMin W, LiangWan C, DaoZhong C. et al. Clinical outcomes of acute pulmonary embolectomy as the first-line treatment for massive and submassive pulmonary embolism: a single-centre study in China. J Cardiothorac Surg 2020; 15 (01) 321
- 88 Kadner A, Schmidli J, Schönhoff F. et al. Excellent outcome after surgical treatment of massive pulmonary embolism in critically ill patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008; 136 (02) 448-451
- 89 Fukuda I, Taniguchi S, Fukui K, Minakawa M, Daitoku K, Suzuki Y. Improved outcome of surgical pulmonary embolectomy by aggressive intervention for critically ill patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2011; 91 (03) 728-732
- 90 Neely RC, Byrne JG, Gosev I. et al. Surgical embolectomy for acute massive and submassive pulmonary embolism in a series of 115 patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2015; 100 (04) 1245-1251 , discussion 1251–1252
- 91 Kucher N, Ouda A, Voci D. et al. Percutaneous large-bore aspiration embolectomy with veno-arterial extracorporal membrane oxygenation support or standby in patients with high-risk pulmonary embolism and contraindications to thrombolysis: a preliminary single centre experience. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care 2023; 12 (04) 232-236
- 92 Guglin M, Zucker MJ, Bazan VM. et al. Venoarterial ECMO for adults: JACC Scientific Expert Panel. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 73 (06) 698-716
- 93 Cecconi M, De Backer D, Antonelli M. et al. Consensus on circulatory shock and hemodynamic monitoring. Task force of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med 2014; 40 (12) 1795-1815
- 94 Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C. et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J 2020; 41 (04) 543-603
- 95 Kaso ER, Pan JA, Salerno M. et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute massive pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis and call to action. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2022; 15 (02) 258-267
- 96 Goldberg JB, Spevack DM, Ahsan S. et al. Survival and right ventricular function after surgical management of acute pulmonary embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 76 (08) 903-911
- 97 Pasrija C, Shah A, George P. et al. Triage and optimization: a new paradigm in the treatment of massive pulmonary embolism. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2018; 156 (02) 672-681
- 98 Kabrhel C, Rosovsky R, Channick R. et al. A multidisciplinary pulmonary embolism response team: initial 30-month experience with a novel approach to delivery of care to patients with submassive and massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 2016; 150 (02) 384-393
- 99 Nolan JP, Sandroni C, Böttiger BW. et al. European Resuscitation Council and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine guidelines 2021: post-resuscitation care. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (04) 369-421
- 100 Ouweneel DM, Engstrom AE, Sjauw KD. et al. Experience from a randomized controlled trial with Impella 2.5 versus IABP in STEMI patients with cardiogenic pre-shock. Lessons learned from the IMPRESS in STEMI trial. Int J Cardiol 2016; 202: 894-896
Address for correspondence
Publication History
Received: 30 May 2023
Accepted: 22 November 2023
Article published online:
26 March 2024
© 2024. Thieme. All rights reserved.
Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany
-
References
- 1 Office of the Surgeon General (US). National Heart Lung, and Blood Institute (US); The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism. Rockville, MD:: Office of the Surgeon General (US);; 2008
- 2 White RH, Zhou H, Romano PS. Incidence of symptomatic venous thromboembolism after different elective or urgent surgical procedures. Thromb Haemost 2003; 90 (03) 446-455
- 3 Cohen AT, Agnelli G, Anderson FA. et al; VTE Impact Assessment Group in Europe (VITAE). Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in Europe. The number of VTE events and associated morbidity and mortality. Thromb Haemost 2007; 98 (04) 756-764
- 4 Donaldson GA, Williams C, Scannell JG, Shaw RS. A reappraisal of the application of the Trendelenburg operation to massive fatal embolism. Report of a successful pulmonary-artery thrombectomy using a cardiopulmonary bypass. N Engl J Med 1963; 268: 171-174
- 5 Conget F, Otero R, Jiménez D. et al. Short-term clinical outcome after acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2008; 100 (05) 937-942
- 6 Sánchez D, De Miguel J, Sam A. et al. The effects of cause of death classification on prognostic assessment of patients with pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9 (11) 2201-2207
- 7 Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Olschewski M. et al. Association between thrombolytic treatment and the prognosis of hemodynamically stable patients with major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. Circulation 1997; 96 (03) 882-888
- 8 Laporte S, Mismetti P, Décousus H. et al; RIETE Investigators. Clinical predictors for fatal pulmonary embolism in 15,520 patients with venous thromboembolism: findings from the Registro Informatizado de la Enfermedad TromboEmbolica venosa (RIETE) Registry. Circulation 2008; 117 (13) 1711-1716
- 9 PIOPED Investigators. Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism. Results of the prospective investigation of pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PIOPED). JAMA 1990; 263 (20) 2753-2759
- 10 Pollack CV, Schreiber D, Goldhaber SZ. et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57 (06) 700-706
- 11 Lobo JL, Alonso S, Arenas J. et al; En nombre del Panel Multidisciplinar para el Manejo de la TEP. Multidisciplinary consensus for the management of pulmonary thromboembolism. Arch Bronconeumol 2022; 58 (03) 246-254
- 12 Stevens SM, Woller SC, Baumann Kreuziger L. et al. Executive summary: antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: second update of the CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest 2021; 160 (06) 2247-2259
- 13 Konstantinides SV, Torbicki A, Agnelli G. et al; Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2014 ESC guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2014; 35 (43) 3033-3069 , 3069a–3069k
- 14 Jiménez D, Rodríguez C, León F. et al; IPEP investigators. Randomised controlled trial of a prognostic assessment and management pathway to reduce the length of hospital stay in normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Respir J 2022; 59 (02) 2100412
- 15 Barbero E, Bikdeli B, Chiluiza D. et al. Performance of early prognostic assessment independently predicts the outcomes in patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118 (04) 798-800
- 16 Jiménez D, de Miguel-Díez J, Guijarro R. et al; RIETE Investigators. Trends in the management and outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism: analysis from the RIETE registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016; 67 (02) 162-170
- 17 van Es N, Coppens M, Schulman S, Middeldorp S, Büller HR. Direct oral anticoagulants compared with vitamin K antagonists for acute venous thromboembolism: evidence from phase 3 trials. Blood 2014; 124 (12) 1968-1975
- 18 Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T. et al; PEITHO Investigators. Fibrinolysis for patients with intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2014; 370 (15) 1402-1411
- 19 Jiménez D, Bikdeli B, Barrios D. et al; RIETE investigators. Epidemiology, patterns of care and mortality for patients with hemodynamically unstable acute symptomatic pulmonary embolism. Int J Cardiol 2018; 269: 327-333
- 20 Kucher N, Goldhaber SZ. Risk stratification of acute pulmonary embolism. Semin Thromb Hemost 2006; 32 (08) 838-847
- 21 Coon WW, Willis PW. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: prediction, prevention and treatment. Am J Cardiol 1959; 4: 611-621
- 22 Soloff LA, Rodman T. Acute pulmonary embolism. II. Clinical. Am Heart J 1967; 74 (06) 829-847
- 23 Dalen JE, Alpert JS. Natural history of pulmonary embolism. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1975; 17 (04) 259-270
- 24 Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A. et al. Management strategies and determinants of outcome in acute major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30 (05) 1165-1171
- 25 Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet 1999; 353 (9162) 1386-1389
- 26 Bahloul M, Chaari A, Kallel H. et al. Pulmonary embolism in intensive care unit: predictive factors, clinical manifestations and outcome. Ann Thorac Med 2010; 5 (02) 97-103
- 27 Piazza G. Advanced management of intermediate- and high-risk pulmonary embolism: JACC focus seminar. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 76 (18) 2117-2127
- 28 Jerjes-Sanchez C, Ramírez-Rivera A, Arriaga-Nava R. et al; de Lourdes García M. Streptokinase and heparin versus heparin alone in massive pulmonary embolism: a randomized controlled trial. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1995; 2 (03) 227-229
- 29 Marti C, John G, Konstantinides S. et al. Systemic thrombolytic therapy for acute pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J 2015; 36 (10) 605-614
- 30 Giri J, Sista AK, Weinberg I. et al. Interventional therapies for acute pulmonary embolism: current status and principles for the development of novel evidence: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2019; 140 (20) e774-e801
- 31 Delmas C, Aissaoui N, Meneveau N. et al. Reperfusion therapies in pulmonary embolism-state of the art and expert opinion: a position paper from the “Unité de Soins Intensifs de Cardiologie” group of the French Society of Cardiology. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2020; 113 (11) 749-759
- 32 Meneveau N, Séronde MF, Blonde MC. et al. Management of unsuccessful thrombolysis in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 2006; 129 (04) 1043-1050
- 33 Azari A, Bigdelu L, Moravvej Z. Surgical embolectomy in the management of massive and sub-massive pulmonary embolism: the results of 30 consecutive ill patients. ARYA Atheroscler 2015; 11 (03) 208-213
- 34 Goldberg JB, Giri J, Kobayashi T. et al. Surgical management and mechanical circulatory support in high-risk pulmonary embolisms: historical context, current status, and future directions: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2023; 147 (09) e628-e647
- 35 Aymard T, Kadner A, Widmer A. et al. Massive pulmonary embolism: surgical embolectomy versus thrombolytic therapy: should surgical indications be revisited?. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2013; 43 (01) 90-94 , discussion 94
- 36 Osho AA, Dudzinski DM. Interventional therapies for acute pulmonary embolism. Surg Clin North Am 2022; 102 (03) 429-447
- 37 Braaten JV, Goss RA, Francis CW. Ultrasound reversibly disaggregates fibrin fibers. Thromb Haemost 1997; 78 (03) 1063-1068
- 38 Piazza G, Hohlfelder B, Jaff MR. et al; SEATTLE II Investigators. A prospective, single-arm, multicenter trial of ultrasound-facilitated, catheter-directed, low-dose fibrinolysis for acute massive and submassive pulmonary embolism: the SEATTLE II study. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2015; 8 (10) 1382-1392
- 39 Tapson VF, Sterling K, Jones N. et al. A randomized trial of the optimum duration of acoustic pulse thrombolysis procedure in acute intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism: the OPTALYSE PE trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2018; 11 (14) 1401-1410
- 40 Piazza G, Sterling KM, Tapson VF. et al. One-year echocardiographic, functional, and quality of life outcomes after ultrasound-facilitated catheter-based fibrinolysis for pulmonary embolism. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2020; 13 (08) e009012
- 41 Sadeghipour P, Jenab Y, Moosavi J. et al. Catheter-directed thrombolysis vs anticoagulation in patients with acute intermediate-high-risk pulmonary embolism: the CANARY randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol 2022; 7 (12) 1189-1197
- 42 Tu T, Toma C, Tapson VF. et al; FLARE Investigators. a prospective, single-arm, multicenter trial of catheter-directed mechanical thrombectomy for intermediate-risk acute pulmonary embolism: the FLARE study. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2019; 12 (09) 859-869
- 43 Toma C, Jaber WA, Weinberg MD. et al. Acute outcomes for the full US cohort of the FLASH mechanical thrombectomy registry in pulmonary embolism. EuroIntervention 2023; 18 (14) 1201-1212
- 44 Sista AK, Horowitz JM, Tapson VF. et al; EXTRACT-PE Investigators. Indigo aspiration system for treatment of pulmonary embolism: results of the EXTRACT-PE trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2021; 14 (03) 319-329
- 45 Silver MJ, Gibson CM, Giri J. et al Outcomes in High-Risk Pulmonary Embolism Patients Undergoing FlowTriever Mechanical Thrombectomy or Other Contemporary Therapies: Results From the FLAME Study. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2023; 16 (10) e013406
- 46 Carroll BJ, Shah RV, Murthy V. et al. Clinical features and outcomes in adults with cardiogenic shock supported by extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Am J Cardiol 2015; 116 (10) 1624-1630
- 47 Elbadawi A, Mentias A, Elgendy IY. et al. National trends and outcomes for extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation use in high-risk pulmonary embolism. Vasc Med 2019; 24 (03) 230-233
- 48 Provias T, Dudzinski DM, Jaff MR. et al. The Massachusetts General Hospital Pulmonary Embolism Response Team (MGH PERT): creation of a multidisciplinary program to improve care of patients with massive and submassive pulmonary embolism. Hosp Pract 2014; 42 (01) 31-37
- 49 Barnes GD, Kabrhel C, Courtney DM. et al; National PERT Consortium Research Committee. Diversity in the pulmonary embolism response team model: an organizational survey of the national PERT consortium members. Chest 2016; 150 (06) 1414-1417
- 50 Rivera-Lebron B, McDaniel M, Ahrar K. et al; PERT Consortium. Diagnosis, treatment and follow up of acute pulmonary embolism: consensus practice from the PERT consortium. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2019; 25: 10 76029619853037
- 51 Rosovsky R, Zhao K, Sista A, Rivera-Lebron B, Kabrhel C. Pulmonary embolism response teams: Purpose, evidence for efficacy, and future research directions. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2019; 3 (03) 315-330
- 52 Rosovsky R, Chang Y, Rosenfield K. et al. Changes in treatment and outcomes after creation of a pulmonary embolism response team (PERT), a 10-year analysis. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2019; 47 (01) 31-40
- 53 Hobohm L, Farmakis IT, Keller K. et al. Pulmonary embolism response team (PERT) implementation and its clinical value across countries: a scoping review and meta-analysis. Clin Res Cardiol 2023; 112 (10) 1351-1361
- 54 Tchantchaleishvili V, Hallinan W, Massey HT. Call for organized statewide networks for management of acute myocardial infarction-related cardiogenic shock. JAMA Surg 2015; 150 (11) 1025-1026
- 55 Dalia AA, Ortoleva J, Fiedler A, Villavicencio M, Shelton K, Cudemus GD. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is a team sport: institutional survival benefits of a formalized ECMO team. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2019; 33 (04) 902-907
- 56 Eckman PM, Katz JN, El Banayosy A, Bohula EA, Sun B, van Diepen S. Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for cardiogenic shock: an introduction for the busy clinician. Circulation 2019; 140 (24) 2019-2037
- 57 Banfi C, Pozzi M, Brunner ME. et al. Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: an overview of different cannulation techniques. J Thorac Dis 2016; 8 (09) E875-E885
- 58 Zhao S, Friedman O. Management of right ventricular failure in pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Clin 2020; 36 (03) 505-515
- 59 Nishimoto Y, Ohbe H, Matsui H. et al. Effectiveness of systemic thrombolysis on clinical outcomes in high-risk pulmonary embolism patients with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a nationwide inpatient database study. J Intensive Care 2023; 11 (01) 4
- 60 Chopard R, Nielsen P, Ius F. et al. Optimal reperfusion strategy in acute high-risk pulmonary embolism requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2022; 60 (05) 2102977
- 61 Levy JH, Staudinger T, Steiner ME. How to manage anticoagulation during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Intensive Care Med 2022; 48 (08) 1076-1079
- 62 Karami M, Mandigers L, Miranda DDR. et al; DUTCH ECLS Study Group. Survival of patients with acute pulmonary embolism treated with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care 2021; 64: 245-254
- 63 Corsi F, Lebreton G, Bréchot N. et al. Life-threatening massive pulmonary embolism rescued by venoarterial-extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit Care 2017; 21 (01) 76
- 64 Al-Bawardy R, Rosenfield K, Borges J. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute massive pulmonary embolism: a case series and review of the literature. Perfusion 2019; 34 (01) 22-28
- 65 Dolmatova EV, Moazzami K, Cocke TP. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in massive pulmonary embolism. Heart Lung 2017; 46 (02) 106-109
- 66 George B, Parazino M, Omar HR. et al. A retrospective comparison of survivors and non-survivors of massive pulmonary embolism receiving veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. Resuscitation 2018; 122: 1-5
- 67 Ghoreishi M, DiChiacchio L, Pasrija C. et al. Predictors of recovery in patients supported with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2020; 110 (01) 70-75
- 68 Giraud R, Laurencet M, Assouline B, De Charrière A, Banfi C, Bendjelid K. Can VA-ECMO be used as an adequate treatment in massive pulmonary embolism?. J Clin Med 2021; 10 (15) 3376
- 69 Ius F, Hoeper MM, Fegbeutel C. et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and surgical embolectomy for high-risk pulmonary embolism. Eur Respir J 2019; 53 (04) 1801773
- 70 Kjaergaard B, Kristensen JH, Sindby JE, de Neergaard S, Rasmussen BS. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in life-threatening massive pulmonary embolism. Perfusion 2019; 34 (06) 467-474
- 71 Ltaief Z, Lupieri E, Bonnemain J, Ben-Hamouda N, Rancati V, Kobbe SS. et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in high-risk pulmonary embolism: a case series and literature review. RCM 2022;23(06):
- 72 Luna-López R, Sousa-Casasnovas I, García-Carreño J, Devesa-Cordero C, Fernández-Avilés F, Martínez-Sellés M. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenator in massive pulmonary embolism. Rev Esp Cardiol (Engl Ed) 2019; 72 (09) 793-794
- 73 Maggio P, Hemmila M, Haft J, Bartlett R. Extracorporeal life support for massive pulmonary embolism. J Trauma 2007; 62 (03) 570-576
- 74 Maj G, Melisurgo G, De Bonis M, Pappalardo F. ECLS management in pulmonary embolism with cardiac arrest: which strategy is better?. Resuscitation 2014; 85 (10) e175-e176
- 75 Malekan R, Saunders PC, Yu CJ. et al. Peripheral extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: comprehensive therapy for high-risk massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2012; 94 (01) 104-108
- 76 Meneveau N, Guillon B, Planquette B. et al. Outcomes after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for the treatment of high-risk pulmonary embolism: a multicentre series of 52 cases. Eur Heart J 2018; 39 (47) 4196-4204
- 77 Miyazaki K, Hikone M, Kuwahara Y, Ishida T, Sugiyama K, Hamabe Y. Extracorporeal CPR for massive pulmonary embolism in a “hybrid 2136 emergency department.”. Am J Emerg Med 2019; 37 (12) 2132-2135
- 78 Moon D, Lee SN, Yoo KD, Jo MS. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation improved survival in patients with massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Saudi Med 2018; 38 (03) 174-180
- 79 Munakata R, Yamamoto T, Hosokawa Y. et al. Massive pulmonary embolism requiring extracorporeal life support treated with catheter-based interventions. Int Heart J 2012; 53 (06) 370-374
- 80 Oh YN, Oh DK, Koh Y. et al. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with acute high-risk pulmonary embolism: a case series with literature review. Acute Crit Care 2019; 34 (02) 148-154
- 81 Pasrija C, Kronfli A, George P. et al. Utilization of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for massive pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 2018; 105 (02) 498-504
- 82 Swol J, Buchwald D, Strauch J, Schildhauer TA. Extracorporeal life support (ECLS) for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with pulmonary embolism in surgical patients: a case series. Perfusion 2016; 31 (01) 54-59
- 83 Assouline B, Assouline-Reinmann M, Giraud R. et al. Management of high-risk pulmonary embolism: what is the place of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation?. J Clin Med 2022; 11 (16) 4734
- 84 Stein PD, Matta F. Thrombolytic therapy in unstable patients with acute pulmonary embolism: saves lives but underused. Am J Med 2012; 125 (05) 465-470
- 85 Keller K, Hobohm L, Ebner M. et al. Trends in thrombolytic treatment and outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism in Germany. Eur Heart J 2020; 41 (04) 522-529
- 86 Hobohm L, Sagoschen I, Habertheuer A. et al. Clinical use and outcome of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in patients with pulmonary embolism. Resuscitation 2022; 170: 285-292
- 87 QiMin W, LiangWan C, DaoZhong C. et al. Clinical outcomes of acute pulmonary embolectomy as the first-line treatment for massive and submassive pulmonary embolism: a single-centre study in China. J Cardiothorac Surg 2020; 15 (01) 321
- 88 Kadner A, Schmidli J, Schönhoff F. et al. Excellent outcome after surgical treatment of massive pulmonary embolism in critically ill patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008; 136 (02) 448-451
- 89 Fukuda I, Taniguchi S, Fukui K, Minakawa M, Daitoku K, Suzuki Y. Improved outcome of surgical pulmonary embolectomy by aggressive intervention for critically ill patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2011; 91 (03) 728-732
- 90 Neely RC, Byrne JG, Gosev I. et al. Surgical embolectomy for acute massive and submassive pulmonary embolism in a series of 115 patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2015; 100 (04) 1245-1251 , discussion 1251–1252
- 91 Kucher N, Ouda A, Voci D. et al. Percutaneous large-bore aspiration embolectomy with veno-arterial extracorporal membrane oxygenation support or standby in patients with high-risk pulmonary embolism and contraindications to thrombolysis: a preliminary single centre experience. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care 2023; 12 (04) 232-236
- 92 Guglin M, Zucker MJ, Bazan VM. et al. Venoarterial ECMO for adults: JACC Scientific Expert Panel. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 73 (06) 698-716
- 93 Cecconi M, De Backer D, Antonelli M. et al. Consensus on circulatory shock and hemodynamic monitoring. Task force of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med 2014; 40 (12) 1795-1815
- 94 Konstantinides SV, Meyer G, Becattini C. et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism developed in collaboration with the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J 2020; 41 (04) 543-603
- 95 Kaso ER, Pan JA, Salerno M. et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute massive pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis and call to action. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2022; 15 (02) 258-267
- 96 Goldberg JB, Spevack DM, Ahsan S. et al. Survival and right ventricular function after surgical management of acute pulmonary embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 76 (08) 903-911
- 97 Pasrija C, Shah A, George P. et al. Triage and optimization: a new paradigm in the treatment of massive pulmonary embolism. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2018; 156 (02) 672-681
- 98 Kabrhel C, Rosovsky R, Channick R. et al. A multidisciplinary pulmonary embolism response team: initial 30-month experience with a novel approach to delivery of care to patients with submassive and massive pulmonary embolism. Chest 2016; 150 (02) 384-393
- 99 Nolan JP, Sandroni C, Böttiger BW. et al. European Resuscitation Council and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine guidelines 2021: post-resuscitation care. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (04) 369-421
- 100 Ouweneel DM, Engstrom AE, Sjauw KD. et al. Experience from a randomized controlled trial with Impella 2.5 versus IABP in STEMI patients with cardiogenic pre-shock. Lessons learned from the IMPRESS in STEMI trial. Int J Cardiol 2016; 202: 894-896