Die Urinuntersuchung bei Hund und Katze, Teil 1: Physikalische und chemische Urinuntersuchung

Zusammenfassung

Die Urinuntersuchung bei Hunden und Katzen ist ein wichtiger Baustein bei der Diagnostik von Erkrankungen des Harntrakts und systemischen Erkrankungen. Eine Routine-Urinuntersuchung besteht aus einer physikalischen und chemischen Urinuntersuchung sowie der Urinsedimentanalyse. Es stehen mehrere Urinsammelmethoden (Auffangen, Katheterisierung, Zystozentese) zur Verfügung, welche mit verschiedenen Vor- und Nachteilen verbunden sind. Je nach Untersuchungsschwerpunkt muss für jeden Patienten individuell die geeignete Methode gewählt werden. Die Urinuntersuchung sollte im besten Fall innerhalb von 30 Minuten nach der Gewinnung durchgeführt werden, da Urin anfällig für zeit- und lagerungsbedingte Veränderungen ist. Die physikalische Urinuntersuchung gliedert sich in die Bestimmung von Urinfarbe und -trübung sowie die Messung des urinspezifischen Gewichts, welches Auskunft über die Konzentration des Urins gibt. Letzteres wird mittels Refraktometrie bestimmt und ist stets im Zusammenhang mit dem Hydratationsstatus des Patienten zu beurteilen. Bei der chemischen Urinuntersuchung werden neben dem pH-Wert des Urins die Präsenz von Blut/Hämoglobin/Myoglobin, Protein, Glukose, Bilirubin, Urobilinogen, Nitrit und Ketonen bestimmt. Hierfür werden meist handelsübliche Urinteststreifen verwendet, die stets gemäß der Herstellerempfehlungen gelagert und verwendet werden sollten und bei deren Auswertung veterinärmedizinische Besonderheiten beachtet werden sollten. Die physikalische und chemische Urinuntersuchung ist einfach und schnell durchführbar und liefert wichtige Informationen, die für die Diagnose oder den Ausschluss von vielen Erkrankungen unverzichtbar sind.

Abstract

The urinalysis of dogs and cats is an important part of the diagnostic evaluation of urinary tract diseases as well as for the identification of systemic diseases. A routine urinalysis consists of a physical and chemical examination of the urine as well as an examination of the urine sediment. Various urine collection methods (free-catch, catheterization, cystocentesis) are available. Each method has multiple advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate method must be chosen individually for each patient depending on the emphasis of the examination. The urine should ideally be examined within 30 minutes of collection as it is prone to change due to time and storage. Physical examination of the urine consists of the determination of urine color, clarity, and specific gravity which provides information regarding the concentration of the urine. The latter is determined by refractometry and needs to be interpreted in the context of the hydration status of the patient. Chemical examination of the urine consists of the determination of the pH value and the presence of blood/hemoglobin/myoglobin, protein, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, nitrite, and ketones. The use of commercially available urine dipsticks is common. These must be stored and used according to the manufacturer’s instructions and when interpreting the results, veterinary aspects need to be taken into consideration. The physical and chemical examinations of the urine represent rapid and readily performable methods that provide important information for the diagnosis or the exclusion of numerous diseases.

Schlüsselwörter

Felin - kanin - Harnwegserkrankung - Urinkonzentrationsvermögen

Key words

Feline - canine - urinary tract disease - urine concentration abilities

Publication History

Received: 03 December 2022

Accepted: 23 March 2023

Article published online:
11 August 2023

• Literatur

• 1 Alleman R, Wamsley H.. Complete Urinalysis. In: Elliott J, Grauer GF, Westropp JL, eds. BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Nephrology and Urology. 3rd ed. Gloucester: British Small Animal Veterinary Association 2017; 60-83
• 2 Osborne CA, Stevens JB.. Urinalysis: a clinical Guide to compassionate Patient Care. Kansas: Bayer Corporation; 1999
• 3 Arnold JE, Camus MS, Freeman KP. et al. ASVCP Guidelines: Principles of quality assurance and standards for veterinary clinical pathology (version 3.0): Developed by the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology's (ASVCP) Quality Assurance and Laboratory Standards (QALS) Committee. Vet Clin Pathol 2019; 48: 542-618
• 4 Rizzi TE, Valenciano A, Cowell RL. et al. Atlas of Canine and Feline Urinalysis. 1st ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2017
• 5 van Vonderen IK, Kooistra HS, Rijnberk A.. Intra- and interindividual variation in urine osmolality and urine specific gravity in healthy pet dogs of various ages. J Vet Intern Med 1997; 11: 30-35
• 6 Rishniw M, Bicalho R.. Factors affecting urine specific gravity in apparently healthy cats presenting to first opinion practice for routine evaluation. J Feline Med Surg 2015; 17: 329-337
• 7 Reine NJ, Langston CE.. Urinalysis interpretation: how to squeeze out the maximum information from a small sample. Clin Tech Small Anim Pract 2005; 20: 2-10
• 8 Carter JM, Klausner JS, Osborne CA. et al. Comparison of collection techniques for quantitative urine culture in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1978; 173: 296-298
• 9 Comer KM, Ling GV.. Results of urinalysis and bacterial culture of canine urine obtained by antepubic cystocentesis, catheterization, and the midstream voided methods. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981; 179: 891-895
• 10 Eggertsdóttir AV, Sævik BK, Halvorsen I. et al. Occurrence of occult bacteriuria in healthy cats. J Feline Med Surg 2011; 13: 800-803
• 11 Sørensen TM, Jensen AB, Damborg P. et al. Evaluation of different sampling methods and criteria for diagnosing canine urinary tract infection by quantitative bacterial culture. Vet J 2016; 216: 168-173
• 12 Coffey EL, Little K, Seelig DM. et al. Comparison of immediate versus delayed streak plate inoculation on urine bacterial culture and susceptibility testing in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2020; 34: 783-789
• 13 Siska WD, Meyer DJ, Schultze AE. et al. Identification of contaminant interferences which cause positive urine reagent test strip reactions in a cage setting for the laboratory-housed nonhuman primate, Beagle dog, and Sprague-Dawley rat. Vet Clin Pathol 2017; 46: 85-90
• 14 Aulbach AD, Schultze E, Tripathi NK. et al. Factors affecting urine reagent strip blood results in dogs and nonhuman primates and interpretation of urinalysis in preclinical toxicology studies: a Multi-Institution Contract Research Organization and BioPharmaceutical Company Perspective. Vet Clin Pathol 2015; 44: 229-233
• 15 Biertuempfel PH, Ling GV, Ling GA.. Urinary tract infection resulting from catheterization in healthy adult dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981; 178: 989-991
• 16 Smarick SD, Haskins SC, Aldrich J. et al. Incidence of catheter-associated urinary tract infection among dogs in a small animal intensive care unit. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004; 224: 1936-1940
• 17 Bubenik LJ, Hosgood GL, Waldron DR. et al. Frequency of urinary tract infection in catheterized dogs and comparison of bacterial culture and susceptibility testing results for catheterized and noncatheterized dogs with urinary tract infections. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007; 231: 893-899
• 18 Buckley GJ, Aktay SA, Rozanski EA.. Massive transfusion and surgical management of iatrogenic aortic laceration associated with cystocentesis in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009; 235: 288-291
• 19 Neumann S, Fechner K, Czerny CP.. Stability of canine urine samples under different storage conditions. Can J Vet Res 2020; 84: 259-264
• 20 Albasan H, Lulich JP, Osborne CA. et al. Effects of storage time and temperature on pH, specific gravity, and crystal formation in urine samples from dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003; 222: 176-179
• 21 Steinberg E, Drobatz K, Aronson L.. The effect of substrate composition and storage time on urine specific gravity in dogs. J Small Anim Pract 2009; 50: 536-539
• 22 Dolscheid-Pommerich RC, Klarmann-Schulz U, Conrad R. et al. Evaluation of the appropriate time period between sampling and analyzing for automated urinalysis. Biochem Med (Zagreb) 2016; 26: 82-89
• 23 Veljkovic K, Rodríguez-Capote K, Bhayana V. et al. Assessment of a four hour delay for urine samples stored without preservatives at room temperature for urinalysis. Clin Biochem 2012; 45: 856-858
• 24 Sturgess CP, Hesford A, Owen H. et al. An investigation into the effects of storage on the diagnosis of crystalluria in cats. J Feline Med Surg 2001; 3: 81-85
• 25 Aulakh HK, Aulakh KS, Ryan KA. et al. Investigation of the effects of storage with preservatives at room temperature or refrigeration without preservatives on urinalysis results for samples from healthy dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020; 257: 726-733
• 26 Seigner S, Bogedale K, Dorsch R. et al. Comparison of the Anvajo Vet Fluidlab 1 urine sediment analyzer to manual microscopy and Idexx SediVue analysis for analysis of urine samples from cats and dogs. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022; 34: 944-954
• 27 Hindman R, Tronic B, Bartlett R.. Effect of delay on culture of urine. J Clin Microbiol 1976; 4: 102-103
• 28 Padilla J, Osborne CA, Ward GE.. Effects of storage time and temperature on quantitative culture of canine urine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1981; 178: 1077-1081
• 29 Eisinger SW, Schwartz M, Dam L. et al. Evaluation of the BD Vacutainer Plus Urine C&S Preservative Tubes compared with nonpreservative urine samples stored at 4°C and room temperature. Am J Clin Pathol 2013; 140: 306-313
• 30 Mösch M, Reese S, Weber K. et al. Influence of preanalytic and analytic variables in canine and feline urine specific gravity measurement by refractometer. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32: 36-43
• 31 Raskin RE, Murray KA, Levy JK.. Comparison of home monitoring methods for feline urine pH measurement. Vet Clin Pathol 2002; 31: 51-55
• 32 Fletcher JM, Behrend EN, Welles EG. et al. Glucose detection and concentration estimation in feline urine samples with the Bayer Multistix and Purina Glucotest. J Feline Med Surg 2011; 13: 705-711
• 33 Kouri T, Malminiemi O, Penders J. et al. Limits of preservation of samples for urine strip tests and particle counting. Clin Chem Lab Med 2008; 46: 703-713
• 34 Kouri T, Vuotari L, Pohjavaara S. et al. Preservation of urine for flow cytometric and visual microscopic testing. Clin Chem 2002; 48: 900-905
• 35 Acierno MJ, Partyka M, Waite K. et al. Effect of refrigeration of clinical canine urine samples on quantitative bacterial culture. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2018; 253: 177-180
• 36 Hedström M, Møller M, Patsekhina H. et al. The effect of urine storage temperature and boric acid preservation on quantitative bacterial culture for diagnosing canine urinary tract infection. BMC Vet Res 2021; 17: 379
• 37 Perrin J, Nicolet J.. Influence of the transport on the outcome of the bacteriological analysis of dog urine comparison of three transport tubes. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 1992; 39: 662-667
• 38 Reppas G, Foster SF.. Practical urinalysis in the cat: 1: urine macroscopic examination 'tips and traps'. J Feline Med Surg 2016; 18: 190-202
• 39 Lum KT, Meers PD.. Boric acid converts urine into an effective bacteriostatic transport medium. J Infect 1989; 18: 51-58
• 40 Patterson CA, Bishop MA, Pack JD. et al. Effects of processing delay, temperature, and transport tube type on results of quantitative bacterial culture of canine urine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2016; 248: 183-187
• 41 Rowlands M, Blackwood L, Mas A. et al. The effect of boric acid on bacterial culture of canine and feline urine. J Small Anim Pract 2011; 52: 510-514
• 42 Cridge H, Wills RW, Lathan P.. Correlation between urine color and urine specific gravity in dogs: can urine color be used to identify concentrated urine?. Can Vet J 2018; 59: 178-180
• 43 Papich MG.. Rifampin. In: Papich MG, eds. Saunders handbook of veterinary drugs: small and large animal. 4th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2016: 709-711
• 44 Chadha V, Garg U, Alon US.. Measurement of urinary concentration: a critical appraisal of methodologies. Pediatr Nephrol 2001; 16: 374-382
• 45 Watson AD.. Urine specific gravity in practice. Aust Vet J 1998; 76: 392-398
• 46 Dossin O, Germain C, Braun JP.. Comparison of the techniques of evaluation of urine dilution/concentration in the dog. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 2003; 50: 322-325
• 47 Bennett AD, McKnight GE, Dodkin SJ. et al. Comparison of digital and optical hand-held refractometers for the measurement of feline urine specific gravity. J Feline Med Surg 2011; 13: 152-154
• 48 Paris JK, Bennett AD, Dodkin SJ. et al. Comparison of a digital and an optical analogue hand-held refractometer for the measurement of canine urine specific gravity. Vet Rec 2012; 170: 463
• 49 Ayoub JA, Beaufrere H, Acierno MJ.. Association between urine osmolality and specific gravity in dogs and the effect of commonly measured urine solutes on that association. Am J Vet Res 2013; 74: 1542-1545
• 50 George JW.. The usefulness and limitations of hand-held refractometers in veterinary laboratory medicine: an historical and technical review. Vet Clin Pathol 2001; 30: 201-210
• 51 Tvedten HW, Ouchterlony H, Lilliehöök IE.. Comparison of specific gravity analysis of feline and canine urine, using five refractometers, to pycnometric analysis and total solids by drying. N Z Vet J 2015; 63: 254-259
• 52 Defontis M, Bauer N, Failing K. et al. Automated and visual analysis of commercial urinary dipsticks in dogs, cats and cattle. Res Vet Sci 2013; 94: 440-445
• 53 Paquignon A, Tran G, Provost JP.. Evaluation of the Clinitek 200 urinary test-strip reader in the analysis of dog and rat urines in pre-clinical toxicology studies. Lab Anim 1993; 27: 240-246
• 54 Bauer N, Rettig S, Moritz A.. Evaluation the Clinitek status automated dipstick analysis device for semiquantitative testing of canine urine. Res Vet Sci 2008; 85: 467-472
• 55 Rubini ME, Wolf AV.. Refractometric determination of total solids and water of serum and urine. J Biol Chem 1957; 225: 869-876
• 56 Tvedten HW, Norén A.. Comparison of a Schmidt and Haensch refractometer and an Atago PAL-USG Cat refractometer for determination of urine specific gravity in dogs and cats. Vet Clin Pathol 2014; 43: 63-66
• 57 Voinescu GC, Shoemaker M, Moore H. et al. The relationship between urine osmolality and specific gravity. Am J Med Sci 2002; 323: 39-42
• 58 Behrend EN, Botsford AN, Mueller SA. et al. Effect on urine specific gravity of the addition of glucose to urine samples of dogs and cats. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80: 907-911
• 59 Vientós-Plotts AI, Behrend EN, Welles EG. et al. Effect of blood contamination on results of dipstick evaluation and urine protein-to-urine creatinine ratio for urine samples from dogs and cats. Am J Vet Res 2018; 79: 525-531
• 60 International Renal Interest Society (IRIS). Urine specific gravity. Im Internet: http://www.iris-kidney.com/education/urine_specific_gravity.html; Stand: 31.01.2022
• 61 Lulich JP, Berent AC, Adams LG. et al. ACVIM small animal consensus recommendations on the treatment and prevention of uroliths in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2016; 30: 1564-1574
• 62 University of Minnesota. Minnesota Urolith Center. Treatment recommendations. Im Internet: https://vetmed.umn.edu/centers-programs/minnesota-urolith-center/urolith-analysis/treatment-recommendations; Stand: 15.11.2022
• 63 Jepson R.. Polyuria and Polydipsia. In: Elliott J, Grauer GF, Westropp JL, eds. BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Nephrology and Urology. 3rd ed. Gloucester: British Small Animal Veterinary Association 2017; 8-23
• 64 Hartmann K.. Rule-Outs für die Kleintiermedizin. 3. Aufl. Hannover: Schlütersche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG; 2021
• 65 Montgomery KW, van der Woerdt A, Cottrill NB.. Acute blindness in dogs: sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome versus neurological disease (140 cases, 2000-2006). Vet Ophthalmol 2008; 11: 314-320
• 66 Oh A, Foster ML, Williams JG. et al. Diagnostic utility of clinical and laboratory test parameters for differentiating between sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome and pituitary-dependent hyperadrenocorticism in dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2019; 22: 842-858
• 67 Cohen HT, Spiegel DM.. Air-exposed urine dipsticks give false-positive results for glucose and false-negative results for blood. Am J Clin Pathol 1991; 96: 398-400
• 68 Boag AM, Breheny C, Handel I. et al. Evaluation of the effect of urine dip vs urine drip on multi-test strip results. Vet Clin Pathol 2019; 48: 276-281
• 69 Ferreira MDF, Garcia Arce M, Handel IG. et al. Urine dipstick precision with standard visual and automated methods within a small animal teaching hospital. Vet Rec 2018; 183: 415
• 70 Rumley A.. Urine dipstick testing: comparison of results obtained by visual reading and with the Bayer CLINITEK 50. Ann Clin Biochem 2000; 37: 220-221
• 71 Mie K, Hayashi A, Nishida H. et al. Evaluation of the accuracy of urine analyzers in dogs and cats. J Vet Med Sci 2019; 81: 1671-1675
• 72 Athanasiou LV, Katsoulos PD, Katsogiannou EG. et al. Comparison between the urine dipstick and the pH-meter to assess urine pH in sheep and dogs. Vet Clin Pathol 2018; 47: 284-288
• 73 Heuter KJ, Buffington CA, Chew DJ.. Agreement between two methods for measuring urine pH in cats and dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 213: 996-998
• 74 Johnson KY, Lulich JP, Osborne CA.. Evaluation of the reproducibility and accuracy of pH-determining devices used to measure urine pH in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007; 230: 364-369
• 75 Moritz A, Schwendenwein I, Kraft W.. Harnapparat. In: Moritz A, Hrsg. Klinische Labordiagnostik in der Tiermedizin. 7. Aufl. Stuttgart: Schattauer; 2014: 420-487
• 76 Wamsley HL.. Examination of the Urinary Sediment. In: Cowell RL, Valenciano AC, eds. Cowell and Tyler's Diagnostic Cytology and Hematology of the Dog and Cat. 4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 2014: 402-430
• 77 Couto CG.. Anämie. In: Couto CG, Nelson RW, Hrsg. Innere Medizin der Kleintiere. 6. Aufl. München: Elsevier GmbH; 2023: 1284-1302
• 78 Holan KM, Kruger JM, Gibbons SN. et al. Clinical evaluation of a leukocyte esterase test-strip for detection of feline pyuria. Vet Clin Pathol 1997; 26: 126-131
• 79 Vail DM, Allen TA, Weiser G.. Applicability of leukocyte esterase test strip in detection of canine pyuria. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1986; 189: 1451-1453
• 80 Farris J, Camus MS, Krimer PM.. Leukocyte esterase and nitrite urine reagent strip utility under altered assay conditions in dogs. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2022; 58: 240-248
• 81 Zatelli A, Paltrinieri S, Nizi F. et al. Evaluation of a urine dipstick test for confirmation or exclusion of proteinuria in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71: 235-240
• 82 Roura X, Elliott J, Grauer GF.. Proteinuria. In: Elliott J, Grauer GF, Westropp JL, eds. BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Nephrology and Urology. 3rd ed. Gloucester: British Small Animal Veterinary Association 2017; 50-59
• 83 Meindl AG, Lourenço BN, Coleman AE. et al. Relationships among urinary protein-to-creatinine ratio, urine specific gravity, and bacteriuria in canine urine samples. J Vet Intern Med 2019; 33: 192-199
• 84 Pérez-Accino J, Feo Bernabe L, Manzanilla EG. et al. The utility of combined urine dipstick analysis and specific gravity measurement to determine feline proteinuria. J Small Anim Pract 2020; 61: 541-546
• 85 International Renal Interest Society. IRIS staging of CKD. Im Internet: http://www.iris-kidney.com/pdf/IRIS_Staging_of_CKD_modified_2019.pdf; Stand: 07.03.2022
• 86 Lees GE, Brown SA, Elliott J. et al. Assessment and management of proteinuria in dogs and cats: 2004 ACVIM forum consensus statement (small animal). J Vet Intern Med 2005; 19: 377-385
• 87 Giraldi M, Paltrinieri S, Zatelli A.. Evaluation of the analytical variability of dipstick protein pads in canine urine. Vet Clin Pathol 2018; 47: 246-251
• 88 Adams LG, Polzin DJ, Osborne CA. et al. Correlation of urine protein/creatinine ratio and twenty-four-hour urinary protein excretion in normal cats and cats with surgically induced chronic renal failure. J Vet Intern Med 1992; 6: 36-40
• 89 Center SA, Wilkinson E, Smith CA. et al. 24-hour urine protein/creatinine ratio in dogs with protein-losing nephropathies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1985; 187: 820-824
• 90 Fidalgo MA, Leal RO, Duarte-Correia JH.. Urinary protein/creatinine ratio in feline medicine: Reasons to perform it and its role in clinical practice – a retrospective study. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12
• 91 Mamone C, Mitchell M, Beaufrere H. et al. Assessment of a veterinary dipstick for determination of urine protein/creatinine ratio in canines. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2014; 50: e11-14
• 92 Welles EG, Whatley EM, Hall AS. et al. Comparison of Multistix PRO dipsticks with other biochemical assays for determining urine protein (UP), urine creatinine (UC) and UP:UC ratio in dogs and cats. Vet Clin Pathol 2006; 35: 31-36
• 93 Beatrice L, Nizi F, Callegari D. et al. Comparison of urine protein-to-creatinine ratio in urine samples collected by cystocentesis versus free catch in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2010; 236: 1221-1224
• 94 Marynissen SJ, Willems AL, Paepe D. et al. Proteinuria in apparently healthy elderly dogs: persistency and comparison between free catch and cystocentesis urine. J Vet Intern Med 2017; 31: 93-101
• 95 Giraldi M, Paltrinieri S, Rossi G. et al. Influence of preanalytical factors on feline proteinuria. Vet Clin Pathol 2021; 50: 369-375
• 96 Rossi G, Giori L, Campagnola S. et al. Evaluation of factors that affect analytic variability of urine protein-to-creatinine ratio determination in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2012; 73: 779-788
• 97 Nabity MB, Boggess MM, Kashtan CE. et al. Day-to-day variation of the urine protein: creatinine ratio in female dogs with stable glomerular proteinuria caused by X-linked hereditary nephropathy. J Vet Intern Med 2007; 21: 425-430
• 98 LeVine DN, Zhang D, Harris T. et al. The use of pooled vs serial urine samples to measure urine protein:creatinine ratios. Vet Clin Pathol 2010; 39: 53-56
• 99 Duffy ME, Specht A, Hill RC.. Comparison between urine protein:creatinine ratios of samples obtained from dogs in home and hospital settings. J Vet Intern Med 2015; 29: 1029-1035
• 100 Rossi G, Bertazzolo W, Dondi F. et al. The effect of inter-laboratory variability on the protein:creatinine (UPC) ratio in canine urine. Vet J 2015; 204: 66-72
• 101 Bagley RS, Center SA, Lewis RM. et al. The effect of experimental cystitis and iatrogenic blood contamination on the urine protein/creatine ratio in the dog. J Vet Intern Med 1991; 5: 66-70
• 102 Vaden SL, Pressler BM, Lappin MR. et al. Effects of urinary tract inflammation and sample blood contamination on urine albumin and total protein concentrations in canine urine samples. Vet Clin Pathol 2004; 33: 14-19
• 103 Jillings E, Squires RA, Azarpeykan S. et al. Does blood contamination of urine compromise interpretation of the urine protein to creatinine ratio in dogs. N Z Vet J 2019; 67: 74-78
• 104 Jepson RE, Syme HM, Markwell P. et al. Measurement of urinary cauxin in geriatric cats with variable plasma creatinine concentrations and proteinuria and evaluation of urine cauxin-to-creatinine concentration ratio as a predictor of developing azotemia. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71: 982-987
• 105 Miyazaki M, Kamiie K, Soeta S. et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel carboxylesterase-like protein that is physiologically present at high concentrations in the urine of domestic cats (Felis catus. Biochem J 2003; 370: 101-110
• 106 Miyazaki M, Fujiwara K, Suzuta Y. et al. Screening for proteinuria in cats using a conventional dipstick test after removal of cauxin from urine with a Lens culinaris agglutinin lectin tip. Vet J 2011; 189: 312-317
• 107 Zeugswetter FK, Sperk N.. Semiquantitative Glukosemessungen in Katzenharnproben und in mit Harn verklumpter Einstreu. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2019; 47: 153-162
• 108 Aldridge CF, Behrend EN, Smith JR. et al. Accuracy of urine dipstick tests and urine glucose-to-creatinine ratios for assessment of glucosuria in dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020; 257: 391-396
• 109 Lee W, Kim Y, Chang S. et al. The influence of vitamin C on the urine dipstick tests in the clinical specimens: a multicenter study. J Clin Lab Anal 2017; 31
• 110 Ko DH, Jeong TD, Kim S. et al. Influence of vitamin C on urine dipstick test results. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2015; 45: 391-395
• 111 Rees CA, Boothe DM.. Evaluation of the effect of cephalexin and enrofloxacin on clinical laboratory measurements of urine glucose in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004; 224: 1455-1458
• 112 De Schepper J, Van der Stock J.. Influence of sex on the urinary bilirubin excretion at increased free plasma haemoglobin levels in whole dogs and in isolated normothermic perfused dog kidneys. Experientia 1971; 27: 1264-1265
• 113 Fulop M, Brazeau P.. The renal excretion of bilirubin in dogs with obstructive jaundice. J Clin Invest 1964; 43: 1192-1202
• 114 Zeugswetter F, Pagitz M.. Ketone measurements using dipstick methodology in cats with diabetes mellitus. J Small Anim Pract 2009; 50: 4-8
• 115 Laffel L.. Ketone bodies: a review of physiology, pathophysiology and application of monitoring to diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 1999; 15: 412-426
• 116 Zeugswetter F, Handl S, Iben C. et al. Efficacy of plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration as a marker for diabetes mellitus in acutely sick cats. J Feline Med Surg 2010; 12: 300-305
• 117 Durocher LL, Hinchcliff KW, DiBartola SP. et al. Acid-base and hormonal abnormalities in dogs with naturally occurring diabetes mellitus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008; 232: 1310-1320
• 118 Weiß M, Schramm F, Dahlem D.. Vergleichsmessung mit dem GlucoMen®LX PLUS und einer Referenzmethode zur Bestimmung von β-Hydroxybutyrat bei Hunden und Katzen. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2019; 47: 419-424
• 119 Weingart C, Lotz F, Kohn B.. Measurement of β-hydroxybutyrate in cats with nonketotic diabetes mellitus, diabetic ketosis, and diabetic ketoacidosis. J Vet Diagn Invest 2012; 24: 295-300
• 120 Sacks DB, Arnold M, Bakris GL. et al. Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: e61-99
• 121 Schramm F, Weiß M, Dahlem D.. Beta-Hydroxybutyrat-Messung mit dem GlucoMen^®LX Plus zur Diagnose der diabetischen Ketoazidose bei Hunden und Katzen. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2020; 48: 322-328
• 122 Di Tommaso M, Aste G, Rocconi F. et al. Evaluation of a portable meter to measure ketonemia and comparison with ketonuria for the diagnosis of canine diabetic ketoacidosis. J Vet Intern Med 2009; 23: 466-471
• 123 Duarte R, Simoes DM, Franchini ML. et al. Accuracy of serum beta-hydroxybutyrate measurements for the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis in 116 dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2002; 16: 411-417
• 124 Rosenbloom AL, Malone JI.. Recognition of impending ketoacidosis delayed by ketone reagent strip failure. Jama 1978; 240: 2462-2464
• 125 Cartwright J, Green RM.. Tyrosine-derived 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate reacts with ketone test fields of 3 commercially available urine dipsticks. Vet Clin Pathol 2010; 39: 354-357