Download PDF
Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 2002; 70(6): 321-330
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-32027
Originalarbeit
© Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart · New York

Borderline-Störung und Verzerrungen der Aufmerksamkeit

Theoretische Modelle und empirische BefundeBorderline Personality Disorder and Attentional Biases Theoretical Models and Empirical findings I.-A.  v. Ceumern-Lindenstjerna1 , R.  Brunner1 , P.  Parzer1 , P.  Fiedler2 , F.  Resch1
  • 1Psychiatrische Klinik der Universität Heidelberg, Abteilung Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie (Direktor: Prof. Dr. med. F. Resch)
  • 2Institut für Psychologie der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, Abteilung Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
04 June 2002 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Zusammenfassung

Ziel dieser Übersichtsarbeit ist es, Art, Ausmaß und Konsequenzen von Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungen bei Patienten mit Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung anhand der bestehenden Literatur zu analysieren. Die klinische Relevanz solcher Phänomene bei der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung wird erläutert und eine Verbindung zwischen theoretischen Modellen, empirischer Forschung und therapeutischen Interventionen gezogen.

Diese Verbindung wird anhand von Studien aufgezeigt, die einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Borderline-Pathologie und affektiven Störungen, Angststörungen sowie Aufmerksamkeitsstörungen nahe legen sowie Hinweise auf neuropsychologische Auffälligkeiten bei Patienten mit einer Borderline-Störung geben. Drei theoretische Modelle zur Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung und ihre möglichen Verbindungen zu Aufmerksamkeitsverzerrungen werden vergleichend dargestellt.

Der dialektisch-behaviorale Ansatz postuliert bei den Patienten mit Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung eine ausgeprägte Einengung der Aufmerksamkeit auf emotionsrelevante Reize im Zusammenhang mit Störungen der Affektregulation. Der kognitive Ansatz geht davon aus, dass starre dysfunktionale Schemata einen kognitiv-emotionalen Kreislauf in Gang setzen, in dem es zu einer voreingenommenen Wahrnehmung und Erinnerung kommt, die zu einer weiteren Verstärkung der Symptomatik beiträgt. Zuletzt wird unter dem Trauma-Ansatz auf Zusammenhänge zwischen der Borderline-Pathologie und den oftmals anhaltenden und mehrfachen Traumatisierungen unter Rückgriff auf Theorien zu Aufmerksamkeitseinengung bei traumatisierten Patienten hingewiesen.

Vorläufige empirische Befunde legen nahe, dass die Patienten eine allgemeine und keine spezifische selektive Aufmerksamkeit auf negative emotionale Reize zeigen. Weiterführende Forschungsanstrengungen könnten klären, ob Interventionen zur Veränderung von Aufmerksamkeitsprozessen eine sinnvolle Ergänzung zu etablierten Behandlungsmodellen bei Borderline-Patienten darstellen könnten.

Abstract

The purpose of this review is to analyse nature, degree and consequences of attentional biases in patients with borderline personality disorder based on existing literature. The clinical importance of these phenomena in patients with borderline personality disorder is strengthened and the link between theoretical models, empirical findings and therapeutic interventions is elaborated.

This link between selective attention and borderline personality disorder is demonstrated on the basis of studies, which indicate a context between borderline pathology, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders and also give evidence to neuropsychological deficits in patients with borderline personality disorder. The present article comparatively describes three theoretical models of borderline personality disorder and their possible links to attentional biases.

The dialectical behavior approach postulates a pronounced attentional narrowing to emotional stimuli in connection with deficits regarding affect regulation. The cognitive approach assumes that rigid dysfunctional schemata initiate a cognitive-emotional circuit, which leads to a reinforcement of the symptomatology as a result of a biased perception and memory. Additionally the present article specifies the trauma approach which emphazises the relation between borderline pathology and childhood trauma with recourse to theories of attentional biases in patients with traumatic experiences.

Preliminary empiricial findings suggest that patients with borderline personality disorder demonstrate a general attentional bias for any emotional negative stimuli and not a selective attentional bias to borderline-specific stimuli. Further studies should clarify, whether therapeutical interventions with the aim to influence attentional processes represent a useful complement to established therapies in patients with borderline personality disorder.

Literatur

  • 1 Beck A T. Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press 1979
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Bower G H. Mood and memory.  American Psychologist. 1981;  36 129-148
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Power M J, Dalgleish T. Cognition and Emotion: From Order to Disorder. Hove: Psychology Press 1997
    Google Scholar
  • 4 Williams J MG, Watts F, MacLeod C, Mathews A. Cognitive Psychology and emotional Disorders (2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley 1997
    Google Scholar
  • 5 Beck A T, Emery G, Greenberg R L. Anxiety disorders und Phobias: a cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books 1985
    Google Scholar
  • 6 Mathews A, Mogg K, Kentish J, Eysenck M. Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in generalized anxiety disorder.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1995;  33 293-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 McNally R J, Amir N, Louro C E, Lukach B M, Riemann B C, Calamari J E. Cognitive processing of idiographic information in panic disorder.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1994;  32 119-122
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Mattia J I, Heimberg R G, Hope D A. The revised Stroop colour naming task in social phobics.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1993;  31 305-313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Martin M, Horder P, Jones G V. Integral bias in naming phobia-related words.  Cognition and Emotion. 1992;  6 479-491
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Lavy E H, van Oppen P, van den Hout M. Selective processing of emotional information in obsessive-compulsive disorder.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1994;  32 243-246
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Moradi A R, Taghavi M R, Neshat-Doost H T, Yule W, Dalgleish T. Performance of children and adolescents with PTSD on the Stroop colour-naming task.  Psychological Medicine. 1999;  29 415-419
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Kinderman P. Attentional bias, persecutory delusions and the self-concept.  British Journal of Medical Psychology. 1994;  67 53-66
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Klieger D M, Cordner M D. The Stroop task as a measure of construct accessibility in depression.  Personality and Individual Differences. 1990;  11 19-27
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Hill A B, Knowles T H. Depression and the emotional stroop effect.  Personality and Individual Differences. 1991;  12 481-485
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Mogg K, Bradley B P, Williams R, Mathews A. Subliminal processing of emotional information in anxiety and depression.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1993;  102 304-311
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Neshat-Doost H T, Taghavi M R, Moradi A R, Yule W, Dalgleish T. The performance of clinically depressed children and adolescents on the modified Stroop paradigm.  Personality and Individual Differences. 1997;  23 753-759
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Dalgleish T, Watts N F. Biases of attention and memory in disorders of anxiety and depression.  Clinical Psychology Review. 1990;  10 589-604
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 MacLeod C. Mood disorders and cognition. In: Eysenck MW (ed). Cognitive Psychology: an international Review New York: Wiley 1990: 9-55
    Google Scholar
  • 19 Sass H, Wittchen H-U, Zaudig M. Diagnostisches und Statistisches Manual Psychischer Störungen (DSM IV). Göttingen: Hogrefe 1996
    Google Scholar
  • 20 McGlashan T H. Langzeitverlauf der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung: Verlauf, Prognose, Komorbidität und Grundlagen. In: Kernberg OF , Dulze B, Sachsse U (Hrsg). Handbuch der Borderline-Störungen Stuttgart: Schattauer 2000: 673-686
    Google Scholar
  • 21 Zanarini M C, Frankenburg F R, Dubo E D, Sickel A E, Trikha A, Levin A, Reynolds V. Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;  155 (12) 1733-1739
    Google Scholar
  • 22 Hoffmann S O. Angst - ein zentrales Phänomen in der Psychodynamik und Symptomatologie der Borderline-Patienten. In: Kernberg OF, Dulze B, .Sachsse U. Handbuch der Borderline-Störungen. Stuttgart: Schattauer 2000: 227-236
    Google Scholar
  • 23 Murray M E. Minimal brain dysfunction and borderline personality adjustment.  American Journal of Psychotherapy. 1979;  33 391-403
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Adler G, Buie D H. Aloneness und borderline psychopathology: the possible relevance of childhood development issues.  International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 1979;  60 83-96
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Swirsky-Sacchetti T, Gorton G, Samuel S, Sobel R, Genetta-Wadley A, Burleigh B. Neuropsychological function in borderline personality disorder.  Journal of Clinical Psychology. 1993;  49 (3) 385-396
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 O'Leary K M, Cowdry R W. Neurospychological Testing Results in Borderline Personality Disorder. In: Silk KR (Hrsg). Biological and Neurobehavioral Studies of Borderline Personality Disorder. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press 1994: 127-158
    Google Scholar
  • 27 Andrulonis P A, Glueck B C, Stroebel C F, Vogel N G. Borderline personality subcategories.  Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1982;  170 670-679
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Wender P H. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders in Adults. New York: Oxford University Press 1995
    Google Scholar
  • 29 Muller R J. Is there a neural basis for borderline splitting?.  Comprehensive Psychiatry. 1992;  33 92-104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Gardner D L, Lucas P N, Cowdry R W. Soft sign neurologic abnormalities in borderline personality disorder und normal control subjects.  Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,. 1987;  175 177-180
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Judd P H, Ruff R M. Neuropsychological dysfunction in borderline personality disorder.  Journal of Personality Disorders. 1993;  7 275-284
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 O'Leary K M, Brouwers P, Gardner D L, Cowdry R. Neuropsychological testing of patients with borderline personality disorder.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1991;  148 106-111
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 van Rekum R, Conway C A, Gansler D, White R, Bachman D L. Neurobehavioral study of borderline personality disorder.  Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. 1993;  18 121-129
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Sprock J, Rader T J, Kendall J P, Yoder C Y. Neuropsychological functioning in patients with borderline personality disorder.  Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2000;  56 1587-1600
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Daleiden E L, Vasey M W. An information-processing perspective on childhood anxiety.  Clinical Psychology Review. 1997;  17 401-429
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Mathews A, Mac Leod C. Discrimination of threat cues without awareness in anxiety states.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1986;  95 131-138
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Mogg K, Bradley B P. A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1998;  36 809-848
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Foa E B, Mc Nally R J. Mechanism of change in exposure therapy. In: Rapee RM (ed). Current Controversies in the Anxiety Disorders. New York: Guilford Press 1996
    Google Scholar
  • 39 Millon T. Disorders of personality DSM-III: Axis II. New York: Wiley 1981
    Google Scholar
  • 40 Millon T. On the genesis and prevalence of the borderline personality disorder: a social learning thesis.  Journal of Personality Disorders. 1987;  1 354-372
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Linehan M M. Dialektisch-Behavoriale Therapie der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung. München: CIP-Medien 1996
    Google Scholar
  • 42 Herpertz S C, Gretzer A, Steinmeyer E M, Muehlbauer V, Schuerkens A, Sass H. Affective instability and impulsivity in personality disorder: results of an experimental study.  Journal of Affective Disorders. 1997;  44 31-37
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Herpertz S C, Schwenger U B, Kunert H J, Lukas G, Gretzer U, Nutzmann J, Schuerkens A, Sass H. Emotional responses in patients with borderline as compared with avoidant personality disorder.  Journal of Personality Disorders. 2000;  14 339-351
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Herpertz S C, Kunert H J, Schwenger U B, Sass H. Affective responsiveness in borderline personality disorder: a psychophysiological approach.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1999;  156 1550-1556
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Herpertz S C, Kunert H J, Schürkens A, Steinmeyer E M, Sass H, Freese R, Flesch M, Müller-Isberner R, Osterheider M. Impulskontrolle und Affektregulation bei Persönlichkeitsstörungen.  Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie. 2000;  50 435-442
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Easterbrook J A. The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior.  Psychological Review. 1959;  66 183-201
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Bahrick H P, Fitts P M, Rankin R E. Effect of incentives upon reactions to peripheral stimuli.  Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1952;  44 400-406
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Bursill A E. The restriction of peripheral vision during exposure to hot and humid conditions.  Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1958;  10 123-129
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Callaway III E, Stone G. Re-evaluating focus of attention. In Uhr L, Miller JG (Hrsg). Drugs and Behavior New York: Wiley 1960: 393-398
    Google Scholar
  • 50 Cornsweet D J. Use of cues in the visual periphery under conditions of arousal.  Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1969;  80 14-18
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 McNamara H, Fisch R. Effects of high and low motivation on two aspects of attention.  Perceptual and Motor Skills. 1964;  19 571-578
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Gilligan S G, Bower G H. Cognitive consequences of emotional arousal. In: Izard CE, Kagan J, Zajonc RB (Hrsg). Emotions, Cognition, and Behavior Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press 1984: 547-588
    Google Scholar
  • 53 Gottman J M, Katz L F. Effects of marital discord on young children's peer interaction and health.  Developmental Psychology. 1990;  25 373-381
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Derryberry D, Rothbart M K. Emotion, attention, and temperament. In: Izard CE , Kagan J, Zajonc RB (Hrsg). Emotions, Cognition, and Behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press 1984: 132-166
    Google Scholar
  • 55 Derryberry D, Rothbart M K. Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament.  Journal of Personality and Social Psycholog. 1988;  55 958-966
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Rothbart M K, Derryberry D. Development of individual differences in temperament. In: Lamb ME, Brown AL (Hrsg). Advances in Developmental Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1981: 37-86
    Google Scholar
  • 57 Matheny A, Riese M, Wilson R S. Rudiments of infant temperament: newborn to 9 months.  Developmental Psychology. 1985;  21 486-494
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Derryberry D. Incentive and feedback effects on target detection: a chronometric analysis of Gray's model of temperament.  Personality and Individual Differences. 1987;  6 855-866
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Compton R J. Ability to disengage attention predicts negative affect.  Cognition and Emotion. 2000;  14 401-415
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Beck A T, Freeman A. et al .Kognitive Therapie der Persönlichkeitsstörungen (3. Auflage). Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union 1995
    Google Scholar
  • 61 Arntz A, Dietzel R, Dreessen L. Assumptions in borderline personality disorder: spezifity, stability and relationship with etiological factors.  Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1999;  37 545-557
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Dreessen L, Arntz A. The Personality Disorder Beliefs Questionnaire (short version). Maastricht: Author 1995
    Google Scholar
  • 63 Beck A T, Freeman A. et al .Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorders. New York: Guilford Press 1990
    Google Scholar
  • 64 Veen G, Arntz A. Multidimensional dichotomous thinking characterizes borderline personality disorder.  Cognitive Therapy and Research. 2000;  24 1068-1075
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Pretzer J. Kognitive Therapie der Persönlichkeitsstörungen. In: Schmitz B, Fydrich T, Limbacher K (Hrsg). Persönlichkeitsstörungen: Diagnostik und Psychotherapie. Weinheim: Psychologie Verlags Union 1996: 149-178
    Google Scholar
  • 66 Schmitz , B . Kognitive Verhaltenstherapie bei Persönlichkeitsstörungen. In: Senf W, Broda M (Hrsg). Praxis der Psychotherapie, (2. Aufl., 421 - 439) Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag 2000
    Google Scholar
  • 67 Arntz A, Appels C, Sieswerda S. Hypervigilance in borderline disorder: a test with the emotional Stroop paradigm.  Journal of Personality Disorders. 2000;  14 366-373
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Brunner R, Parzer P, Resch F. Dissoziative Symptome und traumatische Lebensereignisse bei Jugendlichen mit einer Borderline-Störung.  Persönlichkeitsstörungen: Theorie und Therapie. 2001;  1 4-12
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Herman J L, Perry J C, van der Kolk B A. Childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1989;  146 490-495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Ogata S N, Silk K R, Goodrich S, Lohr N E, Westen D, Hill E M. Childhood sexual and physical abuse in adult patients with borderline personality disorder.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1990;  147 1008-1013
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Zanarini M C, Williams A A, Lewis R E, Reich R B, Vera S C, Martino M F, Levin A, Yong L, Frankenburg F R. Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder.  American Journal of Psychiatry. 1997;  154 1101-1106
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Fiedler P. Borderline: Chronifizierte Belastungsstörung oder Persönlichkeitsstörung?.  Verhaltenstherapie und psychosoziale Praxis. 2001;  33 im Druck
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Stone M H, Unwin A, Beacham B, Swenson C. Incest in female borderlines: its frequency and impact.  International Journal of Family Psychiatry. 1988;  9 277-293
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Stone M H. Incest in the borderline patient. In Kluft RP (Hrsg.). Incest-related syndromes of adult psychopathology. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press 1990: 183-204
    Google Scholar
  • 75 Fossati A, Madeddu F, Maffei C. Borderline personality disorder and childhood sexual abuse: a meta-analytic study.  Journal of Personality Disorders. 1999;  13 268-280
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 van der Kolk B A. Das Trauma in der Borderline-Persönlichkeit.  Persönlichkeitsstörungen. 1999;  3 21-29
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Butollo W, Gavranidou M, Maragkos M. Entwicklung, Trauma, Bindung und Persönlichkeitsstörungen.  Persönlichkeitsstörungen. 1999;  3 53-63
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Maercker A. (Hrsg) .Therapie der posttraumatischen Belastungsstörungen. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer 1997
    Google Scholar
  • 79 Foa E, Konzac M J. Emotional processing of fear: exposure to correcting information.  Psychological Bulletin. 1986;  99 20-35
    Google Scholar
  • 80 Lang P. A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery.  Psychophysiology. 1979;  6 495-571
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Litz B T, Wheaters F W, Monaco V, Herman D S, Wulfsohn M, Marx B, Keane T. Attention, arousal, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder.  Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1996;  9 497-519
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Cassiday K L, McNally R J, Zeitlin S B. Cognitive processing of trauma cues in rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder.  Cognitive Therapy and Research. 1992;  16 283-295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Kaspi S P, McNally R J, Amir N. Cognitive processing of emotional information in posttraumatic stress disorder.  Cognitive Therapy and Research. 1995;  19 433-444
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Buckley T C, Blanchard E B, Neill W T. Information processing and ptsd: a review of the empirical literature.  Clinical Psychology Review. 2000;  20 1041-1065
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Freeman J B, Beck J G. Cognitive Interference for trauma cues in sexually abused adolescent girls with posttraumatic stress disorder.  Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 2000;  29 245-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Korfine L, Hooley J-M. Directed forgetting of emotional stimuli in borderline personality disorder.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2000;  109 214-221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Murray H A. Thematic Apperzeption Test Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1943
    Google Scholar
  • 88 Williams J MG, Mathews A, MacLeod C. The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology.  Psychological Bulletin. 1996;  120 3-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 MacLeod C, Mathews A, Tata P. Attentional bias in emotional disorders.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1986;  95 15-20
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 MacLeod C. Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review.  Psychological Bulletin. 1991;  109 163-203
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Navon D, Margalit B. Allocation of attention according to informativeness in visual recognition.  Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1983;  35A 497-512
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Posner M, Snyder C, Davidson B. Attention and the detection of signals.  Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 1980;  109 160-174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Mogg K, Bradley B P. Orienting of attention to threatening facial expressions presented under conditions of restricted awareness.  Cognition and Emotion. 1999;  13 713-740
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Bradley B P, Mogg K, Falla S, Hamilton L. Attentional bias for threatening facial expressions in anxiety: manipulation of stimulus duration.  Cognition and Emotion. 1998;  12 737-753
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 MacLeod C, Mathews A. Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat.  Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology. 1988;  38 659-670
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Mogg K, Bradley B P, Hallowell N. Attentional bias to threat: roles of trait anxiety, stressful events and awareness.  Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1994;  47A 841-864
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Linehan M. Trainingsmanual zur Dialektisch-Behavioralen Therapie der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung. München: CIP-Medien 1996
    Google Scholar

Dipl. Psych. Ina-Alexandra v. Ceumern-Lindenstjerna

Psychiatrische Klinik der Universität Heidelberg
Abteilung Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie

Blumenstraße 8

69115 Heidelberg

Email: ina_ceumern@med.uni-heidelberg.de