Literatur
-
1
Rello J, Torres A.
Microbial causes of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Sem Respir Infect.
1996;
11
24-31
-
2
Celis R, Torres A, Gatell J M, Almela M, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Agusti-Vidal A.
Nosocomial pneumonia. A multivariate analysis of risk and prognosis.
Chest.
1988;
93
318-324
-
3
Torres A, Aznar R, Gatell J M, Jimenez P, Gonzalez J, Ferrer A, Celis R, Rodrigues-Roisin R.
Incidence, risk, and prognostic factors of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients.
Am Rev Respir Dis.
1990;
142
523-528
-
4
Rello J, Quintana E, Ausina V, Castella J, Luquin M, Net A, Prats G.
Incidence, etiology, and outcome of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients.
Chest.
1991;
100
439-444
-
5
Fagon J Y, Chastre J, Vuagnat A, Trouillet J L, Novara A, Gibert C.
Nosocomial pneumonia and mortality among patients in intensive care units.
JAMA.
1996;
275
866-869
-
6
Kollef M H.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia. A multivariate analysis.
JAMA.
1993;
270
1965-1970
-
7
Papazian L, Bregeon F, Thirion X, Gregoire R, Saux P, Denis J P, Perin G, Charrel J, Dumon J F, Affray J P, Gouin F.
Effect of ventilator-associated pneumonia on mortality and morbidity.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1997;
154
91-97
-
8
Rello J, Jubert P, Valles J, Artigas A, Rue M, Niederman M S.
Evaluation of outcome in intubated patients with pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Clin Infect Dis.
1996;
23
973-978
-
9
Rello J, Rue M, Jubert P. et al .
Survival in patients with nosocomial pneumonia: impact of the severity of illness and the etiologic agent.
Crit Care Med.
1997;
25
1862-1867
-
10
Dorca J, Manresa F, Esteban L, Barreiro B, Prats E, Ariza J, Verdaguer R, Gudiol F.
Efficacy, safety, and therapeutic relevance of transthoracic aspiration with ultrathin needle in nonventilated nosocomial pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1995;
151
1491-1496
-
11
Mandelli M, Mosconi P, Langer M, Cigada M.
Is pneumonia developing in patients in intensive care always a typical “nosocomial” infection.
Lancet.
1986;
2
1094-1095
-
12
Langer M, Cigada M, Mandelli M, Mosconi P, Tognoni G. , ICUGIC .
Early onset pneumonia: a multicenter study in intensive care units.
Intensive Care Med.
1987;
13
342-346
-
13
Rello J, Ausina V, Castella J, Net A, Prats G.
Nosocomial respiratory tract infections in multiple trauma patients. Influence of level of consciousness with implications for therapy.
Chest.
1992;
102
525-529
-
14
Ewig S, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, Fabregas N, Hernandez C, Gonzalez J, Nicolas J M, Soto L.
Bacterial colonization patterns in mechanically ventilated patients with traumatic and medical head injury. Incidence, risk factors, and association with ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1999;
159
188-198
-
15
American Thoracic Society .
Hospital-acquired pneumonia in adults; diagnosis, assessment, initial severity, and prevention. A consensus statement.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1996;
153
1711-1725
-
16
Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M, Castella J, Prats G.
Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest.
1993;
104
1230-1235
-
17
Timsit J F, Misset B, Renaud B, Goldstein F W, Carlet J.
Effect of previous antimicrobial therapy on the accuracy of the main procedures used to diagnose nosocomial pneumonia in patients who are using ventilation.
Chest.
1995;
108
1036-1040
-
18
Trouillet J L, Chastre J, Vugnat A, Joly-Guillou M L, Combaux D, Dombret M C, Gibert C.
Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by potentially drug-resistant bacteria.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1998;
157
531-539
-
19
Espersen F, Gabrielsen J.
Pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus during mechanical ventilation.
J Infect Dis.
1981;
144
19-23
-
20
Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M, Puzo C, Qunitana E, Net A, Prats G.
Risk factors for infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Intensive Care Med.
1994;
20
193-198
-
21
Rodrigues J, Niederman M S, Fein A M, Pai P B.
Non-resolving pneumonia in steroid treated patients with obstructive lung disease.
Am J Med.
1992;
93
29-34
-
22
Carratala J, Gudiol F, Pallares R, Dorca J, Verdaguer R, Ariza J, Manresa F.
Risk factors for nosocomial Legionella pneumophila pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1994;
149
625-629
-
23
Mier L, Dreyfuss D, Darchy B, Lanore J J, Djedaini K, Weber P, Brun P, Coste F.
Is penicillin G an adequate initial treatment for aspiration pneumonia? A prospective evaluation using a protected specimen brush and quantitative cultures.
Intensive Care Med.
1993;
19
279-284
-
24
Cometta A, Baumgartner J D, Lew D.
Prospective randomized comparison of imipenem monotherapy with imipenem plus netilmycin for treatment of severe infections in nonneutropenic patients.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother.
1994;
38
1309-1313
-
25
Rubinstein E, Lode H, Grassi C. , the antibiotic study group .
Ceftazidime monotherapy versus ceftriaxone/tobramycin for serious hospital-acquired Gram-negative infections.
Clin Infect Dis.
1995;
20
1217-1228
-
26
Sieger B, Jon Berman S, Geckler R W, Farkas S A. , the Meropenem lower respiratory tract infection group .
Empiric treatment of hospital-acquired lower respiratory tract infections with meropenem or ceftazidime with tobramycin.
Crit Care Med.
1997;
25
1663-1670
-
27
Luna C M, Vujacich P, Niederman M S, Vay C, Gherardi C, Matera J, Jolly E C.
Impact of BAL data on the therapy and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest.
1997;
111
676-685
-
28
Schentag J J, Birmingham M C, Paladino J A, Carr J R, Hyatt J M, Forrest A, Zimmer G S, Adelman M H, Cumbo T J.
In nosocomial pneumonia, optimizing antibiotics other than aminoglycosides is a more important determinant of successful clinical outcome, and a better means of avoiding resistance.
Semin Respir Infect.
1997;
12
278-293
-
29
Craig W.
Pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial agents as a basis for determining dosage regimens.
Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis.
1993;
12
6-8
-
30
Reinert R R, Queck A, Kaufhold A, Kresken M, Lütticken R.
Antimicrobial resistance and type of distribution of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates causing systemic infections in Germany, 1992 - 1994.
Clin Infect Dis.
1995;
21
1398-1401
-
31
Kresken M, Hafner D.
Prävalenz der Antibiotikaresistenz bei klinisch wichtigen Infektionserregern in Mitteleuropa.
Chemother J.
1996;
5
225-230
-
32
McKenzie F M, Forbes K J, Dorai-John T. et al .
Emergence of a carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae.
Lancet.
1997;
350
783
-
33
Rosenthal E JK.
Antibiotikaempfindlichkeit von Septikämieerregern 1991 - 1992.
Chemother J.
1995;
4
67-72
-
34
Fink M, Snydman D, Niederman M S, Leeper jr K V, Johnson R H, Herad S O, Wunderink R G, Caldwell J W, Schentag J J, Siami G A.
Treatment of severe pneumonia in hospitalized patients: results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind trial comparing intravenous ciprofloxacin with imipenem/cilastatin.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother.
1994;
38
547-557
-
35
Baraibar J, Correo H, Mariscal D, Gallego M, Valles J, Rello J.
Risk factors for infection by Acinetobacter baumanii in intubated patients with nosocomial pneumonia.
Chest.
1997;
112
1050-1054
-
36
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pneumologie .
Empfehlungen zur Diagnostik der nosokomialen Pneumonie.
Pneumologie.
1999;
53
499-510
-
37
Kolleff M H, Vlasnik J, Sharpless L, Pasque C, Murphy D, Fraser V.
Scheduled change of antibiotic classes: a strategy to decrease the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1997;
156
1040-1048
-
38
Hilf M, Yu V L, Sharp J, Zuravleff J J, Korvik J A, Muder R R.
Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients.
Am J Med.
1989;
87
540-546
-
39
Jaccard C, Troillet N, Harbarth S, Zanetti G, Aymon D, Schneider R, Chiolero R, Ricou B, Romand J, Huber O, Ambrosetti P, Praz G, Lew D, Bille J, Glauser M P, Cometta A.
Prospective randomized comparison of imipenem-cilastatin and piperacillin-tazobactam in nosocomial pneumonia or peritonitis.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother.
1998;
42
2966-2972
-
40
Alvarez-Lerma F.
Modification of empiric antibiotic treatment in patients with pneumonia acquired in the intensive care unit: ICU-Acquired Pneumonia Study.
Intensive Care Med.
1996;
22
387-394
-
41
Kollef M H, Ward S.
The influence of mini-BAL cultures on patient outcomes: implications for the antibiotic management of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Chest.
1998;
113
412-420
-
42
Rello J, Gallego M, Mariscal D, Sonora R, Valles J.
The value of routine microbial investigation in ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1997;
156
196-200
-
43
Kolleff M H.
Antimicrobial therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia. How to select an appropriate drug regimen.
Chest.
1999;
115
8-11
-
44
Walsh T J, Finberg R W, Arndt C, Hiemenz J, Schwartz C, Bodensteiner D, Pappas P, Seibel N, Greenberg R N, Dummer S, Schuster M, Holcenberg J S. , for the national institute of allergy and infectious diseases mycoses study group .
Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia.
N Engl J Med.
1999;
340
764-771
-
45
Hoffmann B, Welte T.
The use of noninvasive pressure support ventilation for severe respiratory insufficiency due to pulmonary oedema.
Intensive Care Med.
1999;
25
15-20
-
46
Brochard L, Mancebo J, Wysocki M, Lofaso F, Conti G, Rauss A, Simmoneua G, Benito S, Gasparetto A, Lemaire F, Isabey D, Harf A.
Non-invasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
N Engl J Med.
1995;
333
817-822
-
47
Antonelli M, Conti G, Rocco M, Bufi M, de Blasi R, Vivino G, Gasparetto A, Meduri G U.
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation vs. mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory failure.
N Engl J Med.
1998;
339
429-435
-
48
Holzapfel L, Chevret S, Madinier G, Ohen F, Demingeon G, Coupry A, Chaudet M.
Influence of long-term oro- or nasotracheal intubation on nosocomial maxillary sinusitis and pneumonia: results of a prospective, randomized, clinical trial.
Crit Care Med.
1993;
21
1132-1138
-
49
Rouby J J, Laurent P, Gosnach M, Cambau E, Lamas G, Zouaoui A.
Risk factors and clinical relevance of nosocomial maxillary sinusitis in the critically ill.
Am Rev Respir Dis.
1994;
150
776-783
-
50
Torres A, Serra-Batiles J, Ros E, Piera C, Puig de la Bellacasa J, Cobos A.
Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position.
Ann Intern Med.
1992;
116
540-543
-
51
Orozco-Levi M, Torres A, Ferrer M, Piera C, El-Ebiary M, de la Bellacasa J P.
Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1996;
152
1387-1390
-
52
Drakulovic M B, Torres A, Bauer T T, Nicolas J M, Nogue S, Ferrer M.
Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial.
Lancet.
1999;
354
1851-1858
-
53
Cook D, de Jonghe B, Brochard L, Brun-Buisson C.
Influence of airway management on ventilator-associated pneumonia.
JAMA.
1998;
279
781-787
-
54
Mahul P, Auboyer C, Jospe R.
Prevention of nosocomial pneumonia in intubated patients: respective role of mechanic subglottic secretions drainage and stress ulcer prophylaxis.
Intensive Care Med.
1992;
18
20-25
-
55
Valles J, Artigas A, Rello J.
Continous aspiration of subglottic secretions in preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Ann Intern Med.
1995;
122
179-186
-
56
Cook D J, Walter S D, Cook R J, Griffith L E, Guyatt G H, Leasa D, Jaeschke R Z, Brun-Buisson C.
Incidence of and risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients.
Ann Intern Med.
1998;
129
433-440
-
57
Bonten M J, Gaillard C A, de Leeuw P W, Stobberingh E E.
Role of colonization of the upper intestinal tract in the pathogenesis of ventilator associated pneumonia.
Clin Infect Dis.
1997;
24
309-319
-
58
Moore F A, Feliciano D V, Andressy R J, McArdle H, Booth F V, Morgenstein-Wagner T B, Kellum jr J M, Welling R E, Moore E E.
Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral reduces postoperative septic complications: the results of a meta-analysis.
Ann Surg.
1992;
216
172-183
-
59
Artigas A, Bernard G R, Carlet J, Dreyfuss D, Gattinoni L, Hudson L, Lamy M, Marini J J, Matthay M A, Pinsky M R, Spragg R, Suter P M. , and the Consensus Comitt .
The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS, Part 2.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1998;
157
1332-1347
-
60
Sirvent J M, Torres A, El-Ebiary M, Castro P, Battle J, Bonet A.
Protective effect of intravenously administered cefuroxime against nosocomial pneumonia in patients with structural coma.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1997;
154
1729-1734
-
61
D'Amico R, Pifferi S, Leonetti C, Torri V, Tinazzi A, Liberati A.
Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis in critically ill adult patients: systematic review of randomized controlled trials.
BMJ.
1998;
316
1275-1285
-
62
Sanchez Garcia M, Cambronero Galache J A, Lopez Diaz J, Cerda E, Blasco J R, Gomez Aguinaga M A.
Effectiveness and cost of selective decontamination of the digestive tract in critically ill intubated patients.
Am J Respir Crit Care.
1998;
158
908-916
-
63
Cook D J, Guyatt G, Marshall J, Leasa D, Fuller H, Hall R.
A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation.
New Engl J Med.
1998;
338
791-797
-
64
Go E S, Urban C, Burns J, Kreiswirth B, Eisner W, Mariano N, Mosinka Snipas K, Rahal J J.
Clinical and molecular epidemiology of acinetobacter infections sensitive only to polymyxin B and sulbactam.
Lancet.
1994;
344
1329-1332
-
65
Hartstein A I, Denny M A, Morthland V I.
Control of metacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital and an intensive care unit.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
1995;
16
405-411
-
66
Moro M L, Jepsen O B.
Infection control practice in intensive care units of 14 European countries. The EURO.NIS Study Group.
Intensive Care Med.
1996;
22
872-879
-
67
Kirton O C, De Haven B, Morgan J, Morejon O, Civetta J.
A prospective, randomized comparison of an in-line heat moisture exchange filter and heated wire humifiders.
Chest.
1997;
112
1055-1059
-
68
Vandenbroucke-Grauls C MJE, Teeuw K B, Ballemans K, Lavooij C, Cornelisse B, Verhoef J.
Bacterial and viral removal efficacy, heat and moisture exchange properties of four filtration devices.
J Hosp Infect.
1995;
29
45-56
-
69
Roustan J P, Kienlen J, Aubas P, Aubas S, du Caillar J.
Comparison of hydrophobic heat and moisture exchangers with heated humifiders during prolonged mechanical ventilation.
Intensive Care Med.
1992;
18
97-100
-
70
Iotti G A, Olivei M C, Palo A, Galbusera C, Veronesi R, Comelli A, Brunner J X, Braschi A.
Unfavorable mechanical effects of heat and moisture exchangers in ventilated patients.
Intensive Care Med.
1997;
23
399-405
-
71
Deppe S A, Kelley J W, Thoi L L.
Incidence of colonization, nosocomial pneumonia, and mortality in critically ill patients using Trach Care closed suction system versus an open suction-system: prospective randomized study.
Crit Care Med.
1990;
18
1389-1393
-
72
Welte T, Ziesing S, Schulte S, Wagner T OF.
Incidence of ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP) in mechanically ventilated patients - a comparison of closed versus opened endotracheal suctioning.
Eur Resp J.
1997;
10 (Suppl 25)
319-20S
-
73
Johnson K L, Kearney P A, Johnson S B, Niblett J B, Mac Millan N L, McClain R E.
Closed versus open endotracheal suctioning: costs and physiological consequences.
Crit Care Med.
1994;
22
658-666
-
74
Kollef M H, Prentice D, Shapiro S D, Fraser V J, Silver P, Trovillion E, Weilitz P, von Harz B, St. John R.
Mechanical ventilation with or without daily changes of inline suction catheters.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1997;
156
466-472
-
75
Freytag C, Achzehn U, Klein H, König W, Welte T.
Microbial colonization of three different multiple-use suction catheter types after in vivo application.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
1999;
A
609
-
76
Craven D, Lichtenberg D A, Goularte T A, Make B J, McCabe W R.
Contaminated medication nebulizers in mechanical ventilator circuits. Source of bacterial aerosols.
Am J Med.
1984;
77
834-838
-
77
Garner J S. , Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Commitee .
Guidelines for isolation precautions in hospital.
Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
1996;
17
53-80
PD Dr. med Santiago Ewig
Medizinische Universitätklinik und Poliklinik II
Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25 53125 Bonn
