Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2022; 43(06): 792-808
DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1755565
Review Article

High-Resolution Computed Tomography of Cystic Lung Disease

Joanna E. Kusmirek
1   Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
,
Cristopher A. Meyer
1   Department of Radiology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The cystic lung diseases (CLD) are characterized by the presence of multiple, thin-walled, air-filled spaces in the pulmonary parenchyma. Cyst formation may occur with congenital, autoimmune, inflammatory, infectious, or neoplastic processes. Recognition of cyst mimics such as emphysema and bronchiectasis is important to prevent diagnostic confusion and unnecessary evaluation. Chest CT can be diagnostic or may guide the workup based on cyst number, distribution, morphology, and associated lung, and extrapulmonary findings. Diffuse CLD (DCLDs) are often considered those presenting with 10 or more cysts. The more commonly encountered DCLDs include lymphangioleiomyomatosis, pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis, lymphoid interstitial pneumonia, Birt–Hogg–Dubé syndrome, and amyloidosis/light chain deposition disease.

Keywords

lung cyst - diffuse cystic lung disease - chest CT - lymphangioleiomyomatosis - pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis


Publication History

Article published online:
17 October 2022

© 2022. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Seaman DM, Meyer CA, Gilman MD, McCormack FX. Diffuse cystic lung disease at high-resolution CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196 (06) 1305-1311
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Kim NR, Han J. Pathologic review of cystic and cavitary lung diseases. Korean J Pathol 2012; 46 (05) 407-414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Gupta N, Langenderfer D, McCormack FX, Schauer DP, Eckman MH. Chest computed tomographic image screening for cystic lung diseases in patients with spontaneous pneumothorax is cost effective. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2017; 14 (01) 17-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Gupta N, Meraj R, Tanase D. et al. Accuracy of chest high-resolution computed tomography in diagnosing diffuse cystic lung diseases. Eur Respir J 2015; 46 (04) 1196-1199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 McCormack FX, Gupta N, Finlay GR. et al; ATS/JRS Committee on Lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Official American Thoracic Society/Japanese Respiratory Society Clinical Practice Guidelines: lymphangioleiomyomatosis diagnosis and management. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016; 194 (06) 748-761
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Abbott GF, Rosado-de-Christenson ML, Franks TJ, Frazier AA, Galvin JR. From the archives of the AFIP: pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Radiographics 2004; 24 (03) 821-841
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Kim HJ, Lee KS, Johkoh T. et al. Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis in adults: high-resolution CT-pathology comparisons and evolutional changes at CT. Eur Radiol 2011; 21 (07) 1406-1415
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Kazerooni EA. High-resolution CT of the lungs. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 177 (03) 501-519
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Suzuki K, Seyama K, Ebana H, Kumasaka T, Kuwatsuru R. Quantitative analysis of cystic lung diseases by use of paired inspiratory and expiratory CT: estimation of the extent of cyst-airway communication and evaluation of diagnostic utility. Radiol Cardiothorac Imaging 2020; 2 (02) e190097
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Chung JH. Is the cyst-airway communicating index a possible tool to differentiate cystic lung diseases?. Radiol Cardiothorac Imaging 2020; 2 (02) e200100
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Dalrymple NC, Prasad SR, Freckleton MW, Chintapalli KN. Informatics in radiology (infoRAD): introduction to the language of three-dimensional imaging with multidetector CT. Radiographics 2005; 25 (05) 1409-1428
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Beddy P, Babar J, Devaraj A. A practical approach to cystic lung disease on HRCT. Insights Imaging 2011; 2 (01) 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Cody DD. AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents: topics in CT. Image processing in CT. Radiographics 2002; 22 (05) 1255-1268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Beigelman-Aubry C, Hill C, Guibal A, Savatovsky J, Grenier PA. Multi-detector row CT and postprocessing techniques in the assessment of diffuse lung disease. Radiographics 2005; 25 (06) 1639-1652
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Sabri YY, Hamdy Ibrahim IM, Mohamed Tarek Gamal S, Assal HH. Multi-detector CT (MDCT) evaluation in interstitial lung disease (ILD): comparison of MinIP and volumetric high resolution CT (HRCT) images. Egypt J Radiol Nucl Med 2017; 48 (01) 87-95
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Suzuki H, Oishi H, Noda M. et al. Correlation between the native lung volume change and postoperative pulmonary function after single lung transplantation for lymphangioleiomyomatosis: evaluation of lung volume by three-dimensional computed tomography volumetry. PLoS One 2019; 14 (02) e0210975
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Gopalakrishnan V, Yao J, Steagall WK. et al. Use of CT imaging to quantify progression and response to treatment in lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Chest 2019; 155 (05) 962-971
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 NRC.GOV. . Accessed October 13, 2018 at: https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/around-us/doses-daily-lives.html
    PubMed
  • 19 Hu-Wang E, Schuzer JL, Rollison S. et al. Chest CT scan at radiation dose of a posteroanterior and lateral chest radiograph series: a proof of principle in lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Chest 2019; 155 (03) 528-533
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Baldi BG, Carvalho CRR, Dias OM, Marchiori E, Hochhegger B. Diffuse cystic lung diseases: differential diagnosis. J Bras Pneumol 2017; 43 (02) 140-149
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Obaidat B, Yazdani D, Wikenheiser-Brokamp KA, Gupta N. Diffuse cystic lung diseases. Respir Care 2020; 65 (01) 111-126
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Koyama M, Johkoh T, Honda O. et al. Chronic cystic lung disease: diagnostic accuracy of high-resolution CT in 92 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 180 (03) 827-835
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Boddu P, Parimi V, Taddonio M, Kane JR, Yeldandi A. Pathologic and radiologic correlation of adult cystic lung disease: a comprehensive review. Pathol Res Int 2017; 2017: 3502438
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Furuya M, Nakatani Y. Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome: clinicopathological features of the lung. J Clin Pathol 2013; 66 (03) 178-186
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Franquet T, Hansell DM, Senbanjo T, Remy-Jardin M, Müller NL. Lung cysts in subacute hypersensitivity pneumonitis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2003; 27 (04) 475-478
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Vassallo R, Harari S, Tazi A. Current understanding and management of pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Thorax 2017; 72 (10) 937-945
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Radzikowska E. Update on pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 7: 582581-582581
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Castoldi MC, Verrioli A, De Juli E, Vanzulli A. Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis: the many faces of presentation at initial CT scan. Insights Imaging 2014; 5 (04) 483-492
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Radzikowska E, Błasińska-Przerwa K, Wiatr E, Bestry I, Langfort R, Roszkowski-Śliż K. Pneumothorax in patients with pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Lung 2018; 196 (06) 715-720
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Nair A, Hansell DM. High-resolution computed tomography features of smoking-related interstitial lung disease. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2014; 35 (01) 59-71
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Le Louet S, Barkaoui M-A, Miron J. et al. Childhood Langerhans cell histiocytosis with severe lung involvement: a nationwide cohort study. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2020; 15 (01) 241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Abbritti M, Mazzei MA, Bargagli E. et al. Utility of spiral CAT scan in the follow-up of patients with pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Eur J Radiol 2012; 81 (08) 1907-1912
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Canuet M, Kessler R, Jeung MY, Métivier AC, Chaouat A, Weitzenblum E. Correlation between high-resolution computed tomography findings and lung function in pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Respiration 2007; 74 (06) 640-646
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Tazi A, Marc K, Dominique S. et al. Serial computed tomography and lung function testing in pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis. Eur Respir J 2012; 40 (04) 905-912
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Earlam K, Souza CA, Glikstein R, Gomes MM, Pakhale S. Pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis and diabetes insipidus in a young smoker. Can Respir J 2015; 16996
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Krajicek BJ, Ryu JH, Hartman TE, Lowe VJ, Vassallo R. Abnormal fluorodeoxyglucose PET in pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Chest 2009; 135 (06) 1542-1549
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Hansen NJ, Hankins JH. Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis: PET/CT for initial workup and treatment response evaluation. Clin Nucl Med 2015; 40 (02) 153-155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Mogulkoc N, Veral A, Bishop PW, Bayindir U, Pickering CA, Egan JJ. Pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis: radiologic resolution following smoking cessation. Chest 1999; 115 (05) 1452-1455
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Marciano BE, Olivier KN, Folio LR. et al. Pulmonary manifestations of GATA2 deficiency. Chest 2021; 160 (04) 1350-1359
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Svobodova T, Mejstrikova E, Salzer U. et al. Diffuse parenchymal lung disease as first clinical manifestation of GATA-2 deficiency in childhood. BMC Pulm Med 2015; 15 (01) 8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Akira M, Yamamoto S, Hara H, Sakatani M, Ueda E. Serial computed tomographic evaluation in desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Thorax 1997; 52 (04) 333-337
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Hartman TE, Primack SL, Swensen SJ, Hansell D, McGuinness G, Müller NL. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia: thin-section CT findings in 22 patients. Radiology 1993; 187 (03) 787-790
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Mueller-Mang C, Grosse C, Schmid K, Stiebellehner L, Bankier AA. What every radiologist should know about idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. Radiographics 2007; 27 (03) 595-615
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Diken ÖE, Şengül A, Beyan AC, Ayten Ö, Mutlu LC, Okutan O. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia: risk factors, laboratory and bronchoalveolar lavage findings, radiological and histopathological examination, clinical features, treatment and prognosis. Exp Ther Med 2019; 17 (01) 587-595
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Heyneman LE, Ward S, Lynch DA, Remy-Jardin M, Johkoh T, Müller NL. Respiratory bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease, and desquamative interstitial pneumonia: different entities or part of the spectrum of the same disease process?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 173 (06) 1617-1622
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Abbott GF, Rosado-de-Christenson ML, Frazier AA, Franks TJ, Pugatch RD, Galvin JR. From the archives of the AFIP: lymphangioleiomyomatosis: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 2005; 25 (03) 803-828
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Ryu JH, Moss J, Beck GJ. et al; NHLBI LAM Registry Group. The NHLBI lymphangioleiomyomatosis registry: characteristics of 230 patients at enrollment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173 (01) 105-111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Boone PM, Scott RM, Marciniak SJ, Henske EP, Raby BA. The genetics of pneumothorax. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019; 199 (11) 1344-1357
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Harknett EC, Chang WY, Byrnes S. et al. Use of variability in national and regional data to estimate the prevalence of lymphangioleiomyomatosis. QJM 2011; 104 (11) 971-979
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Gupta N, Vassallo R, Wikenheiser-Brokamp KA, McCormack FX. Diffuse cystic lung disease. Part II. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 192 (01) 17-29
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Avila NA, Dwyer AJ, Rabel A, Moss J. Sporadic lymphangioleiomyomatosis and tuberous sclerosis complex with lymphangioleiomyomatosis: comparison of CT features. Radiology 2007; 242 (01) 277-285
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Muzykewicz DA, Sharma A, Muse V, Numis AL, Rajagopal J, Thiele EA. TSC1 and TSC2 mutations in patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis and tuberous sclerosis complex. J Med Genet 2009; 46 (07) 465-468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Cudzilo CJ, Szczesniak RD, Brody AS. et al. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis screening in women with tuberous sclerosis. Chest 2013; 144 (02) 578-585
    Google Scholar
  • 54 Krueger DA, Northrup H. International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group. Tuberous sclerosis complex surveillance and management: recommendations of the 2012 International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Conference. Pediatr Neurol 2013; 49 (04) 255-265
    Google Scholar
  • 55 Ryu JH, Sykes AM, Lee AS, Burger CD. Cystic lung disease is not uncommon in men with tuberous sclerosis complex. Respir Med 2012; 106 (11) 1586-1590
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Ajlan AM, Bilawich AM, Müller NL. Thoracic computed tomographic manifestations of tuberous sclerosis in adults. Can Assoc Radiol J 2012; 63 (01) 61-68
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Sekimoto Y, Suzuki K, Okura M. et al. Uncommon radiologic computed tomography appearances of the chest in patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Sci Rep 2021; 11 (01) 7170-7170
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Gupta N, Finlay GA, Kotloff RM. et al; ATS Assembly on Clinical Problems. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis diagnosis and management: high-resolution chest computed tomography, transbronchial lung biopsy, and pleural disease management. An official American Thoracic Society/Japanese Respiratory Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 196 (10) 1337-1348
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Gupta N, Henske EP. Pulmonary manifestations in tuberous sclerosis complex. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 2018; 178 (03) 326-337
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Ristagno RL, Biddinger PW, Pina EM, Meyer CA. Multifocal micronodular pneumocyte hyperplasia in tuberous sclerosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 184 (3, Suppl): S37-S39
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Cui H, Cheng C, Xu W. et al. The etiology of diffuse cystic lung diseases: an analysis of 1010 consecutive cases in a LAM clinic. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2021; 16 (01) 273-273
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Gupta N, Colby TV, Meyer CA, McCormack FX, Wikenheiser-Brokamp KA. Smoking-related diffuse cystic lung disease. Chest 2018; 154 (02) e31-e35
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Tobino K, Johkoh T, Fujimoto K. et al. Computed tomographic features of lymphangioleiomyomatosis: evaluation in 138 patients. Eur J Radiol 2015; 84 (03) 534-541
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Kitaichi M, Nishimura K, Itoh H, Izumi T. Pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis: a report of 46 patients including a clinicopathologic study of prognostic factors. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151 (2, Pt 1): 527-533
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Warth A, Herpel E, Schmähl A. et al. Mediastinal angiomyolipomas in a male patient affected by tuberous sclerosis. Eur Respir J 2008; 31 (03) 678-680
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Benden C, Rea F, Behr J. et al. Lung transplantation for lymphangioleiomyomatosis: the European experience. J Heart Lung Transplant 2009; 28 (01) 1-7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Kpodonu J, Massad MG, Chaer RA. et al. The US experience with lung transplantation for pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24 (09) 1247-1253
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Zaki KS, Aryan Z, Mehta AC, Akindipe O, Budev M. Recurrence of lymphangioleiomyomatosis: nine years after a bilateral lung transplantation. World J Transplant 2016; 6 (01) 249-254
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Silva CI, Flint JD, Levy RD, Müller NL. Diffuse lung cysts in lymphoid interstitial pneumonia: high-resolution CT and pathologic findings. J Thorac Imaging 2006; 21 (03) 241-244
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Arcadu A, Moua T, Yi ES, Ryu JH. Lymphoid interstitial pneumonia and other benign lymphoid disorders. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2016; 37 (03) 406-420
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Egashira R, Kondo T, Hirai T. et al. CT findings of thoracic manifestations of primary Sjögren syndrome: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics 2013; 33 (07) 1933-1949
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Hare SS, Souza CA, Bain G. et al. The radiological spectrum of pulmonary lymphoproliferative disease. Br J Radiol 2012; 85 (1015): 848-864
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Lynch DA. Lung disease related to collagen vascular disease. J Thorac Imaging 2009; 24 (04) 299-309
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Ichikawa Y, Kinoshita M, Koga T, Oizumi K, Fujimoto K, Hayabuchi N. Lung cyst formation in lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia: CT features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1994; 18 (05) 745-748
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Chu SC, Horiba K, Usuki J. et al. Comprehensive evaluation of 35 patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Chest 1999; 115 (04) 1041-1052
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Dong X, Gao Y-L, Lu Y, Zheng Y. Characteristics of primary Sjögren's syndrome related lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia. Clin Rheumatol 2021; 40 (02) 601-612
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Jeong YJ, Lee KS, Chung MP. et al. Amyloidosis and lymphoproliferative disease in Sjögren syndrome: thin-section computed tomography findings and histopathologic comparisons. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2004; 28 (06) 776-781
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Marchiori E, Zanetti G, Hocchegger B, Irion KL. Cystic amyloidosis or lymphoid interstitial pneumonia associated with amyloidosis? A diagnostic challenge. Ann Thorac Surg 2012; 94 (03) 1041-1042 , author reply 1042
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Sakai M, Yamaoka M, Kawaguchi M, Hizawa N, Sato Y. Multiple cystic pulmonary amyloidosis. Ann Thorac Surg 2011; 92 (05) e109
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Chew KM, Clarke MJ, Dubey N, Seet JE. Nodular pulmonary amyloidosis with unusual, widespread lung cysts. Singapore Med J 2013; 54 (05) e97-e99
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Watanabe Y, Koyama S, Miwa C. et al. Pulmonary mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma in Sjögren's syndrome showing only the LIP pattern radiologically. Intern Med 2012; 51 (05) 491-495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Desai SR, Nicholson AG, Stewart S, Twentyman OM, Flower CD, Hansell DM. Benign pulmonary lymphocytic infiltration and amyloidosis: computed tomographic and pathologic features in three cases. J Thorac Imaging 1997; 12 (03) 215-220
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Aylwin AC, Gishen P, Copley SJ. Imaging appearance of thoracic amyloidosis. J Thorac Imaging 2005; 20 (01) 41-46
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Utz JP, Swensen SJ, Gertz MA. Pulmonary amyloidosis. The Mayo Clinic experience from 1980 to 1993. Ann Intern Med 1996; 124 (04) 407-413
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 McKenna R, Kyle R, Kuehl W, Grogan T, Harris N, Coupland R. WHO classification of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. In: Plasma Cell Neoplasms. Lyon: IARC; 2008: 200-213
    Google Scholar
  • 86 Sheard S, Nicholson AG, Edmunds L, Wotherspoon AC, Hansell DM. Pulmonary light-chain deposition disease: CT and pathology findings in nine patients. Clin Radiol 2015; 70 (05) 515-522
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Colombat M, Stern M, Groussard O. et al. Pulmonary cystic disorder related to light chain deposition disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173 (07) 777-780
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Wei P, Tao R, Liu Y. et al. Pulmonary light chain deposition disease: a case series and literature review. Ann Transl Med 2020; 8 (09) 588-588
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Baqir M, Kluka EM, Aubry MC. et al. Amyloid-associated cystic lung disease in primary Sjögren's syndrome. Respir Med 2013; 107 (04) 616-621
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Arrossi AV, Merzianu M, Farver C. et al. Nodular pulmonary light chain deposition disease: an entity associated with Sjögren syndrome or marginal zone lymphoma. J Clin Pathol 2016; 69 (06) 490-496
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Gupta N, Sunwoo BY, Kotloff RM. Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. Clin Chest Med 2016; 37 (03) 475-486
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Radzikowska E, Lechowicz U, Winek J, Opoka L. Novel folliculin gene mutations in Polish patients with Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2021; 16 (01) 302-302
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Liu Y, Xu Z, Feng R. et al. Clinical and genetic characteristics of Chinese patients with Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2017; 12 (01) 104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Xu W, Xu Z, Liu Y. et al. Characterization of CT scans of patients with Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome compared with those of Chinese patients with non-BHD diffuse cyst lung diseases. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2020; 15 (01) 176-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Opoka L, Wakulinski J, Winek J, Bestry I, Błasinska K, Radzikowska E. Familial pneumothoraces - Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. Differentiation with other cystic lung diseases. Pol J Radiol 2019; 84: e424-e429
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Toro JR, Pautler SE, Stewart L. et al. Lung cysts, spontaneous pneumothorax, and genetic associations in 89 families with Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 175 (10) 1044-1053
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Ayo DS, Aughenbaugh GL, Yi ES, Hand JL, Ryu JH. Cystic lung disease in Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome. Chest 2007; 132 (02) 679-684
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Al-Shinnag M, Marfan H, Susman R. et al. Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome and hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma syndrome: an effective multidisciplinary approach to hereditary renal cancer predisposing syndromes. Front Oncol 2021; 11: 738822-738822
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Houweling AC, Gijezen LM, Jonker MA. et al. Renal cancer and pneumothorax risk in Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome; an analysis of 115 FLCN mutation carriers from 35 BHD families. Br J Cancer 2011; 105 (12) 1912-1919
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Kumasaka T, Hayashi T, Mitani K. et al. Characterization of pulmonary cysts in Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome: histopathological and morphometric analysis of 229 pulmonary cysts from 50 unrelated patients. Histopathology 2014; 65 (01) 100-110
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Tobino K, Gunji Y, Kurihara M. et al. Characteristics of pulmonary cysts in Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome: thin-section CT findings of the chest in 12 patients. Eur J Radiol 2011; 77 (03) 403-409
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Agarwal PP, Gross BH, Holloway BJ, Seely J, Stark P, Kazerooni EA. Thoracic CT findings in Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196 (02) 349-352
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Rowan C, Hansell DM, Renzoni E. et al. Diffuse cystic lung disease of unexplained cause with coexistent small airway disease: a possible causal relationship?. Am J Surg Pathol 2012; 36 (02) 228-234
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 de Oliveira MR, Dias OM, Amaral AF. et al. Diffuse cystic lung disease as the primary tomographic manifestation of bronchiolitis: a case series. Pulmonology 2020; 26 (06) 403-406
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Tsui JL, Estrada OA, Deng Z. et al. Analysis of pulmonary features and treatment approaches in the COPA syndrome. ERJ Open Res 2018; 4 (02) 00017-02018
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Taveira-DaSilva AM, Markello TC, Kleiner DE. et al. Expanding the phenotype of COPA syndrome: a kindred with typical and atypical features. J Med Genet 2019; 56 (11) 778-782
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Trotman-Dickenson B. Cystic lung disease: achieving a radiologic diagnosis. Eur J Radiol 2014; 83 (01) 39-46
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Ryu JH, Tian X, Baqir M, Xu K. Diffuse cystic lung diseases. Front Med 2013; 7 (03) 316-327
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Copley SJ, Wells AU, Hawtin KE. et al. Lung morphology in the elderly: comparative CT study of subjects over 75 years old versus those under 55 years old. Radiology 2009; 251 (02) 566-573
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Winter DH, Manzini M, Salge JM. et al. Aging of the lungs in asymptomatic lifelong nonsmokers: findings on HRCT. Lung 2015; 193 (02) 283-290
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Araki T, Nishino M, Gao W. et al. Pulmonary cysts identified on chest CT: are they part of aging change or of clinical significance?. Thorax 2015; 70 (12) 1156-1162
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Northrup H, Krueger DA. International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Group. Tuberous sclerosis complex diagnostic criteria update: recommendations of the 2012 International Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Consensus Conference. Pediatr Neurol 2013; 49 (04) 243-254
    Google Scholar
  • 113 Dowton SB, Pincott S, Demmer L. Respiratory complications of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Clin Genet 1996; 50 (06) 510-514
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Chohan K, Mittal N, McGillis L. et al. A review of respiratory manifestations and their management in Ehlers-Danlos syndromes and hypermobility spectrum disorders. Chron Respir Dis 2021; 18: 147997 31211025313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Zamora AC, Collard HR, Wolters PJ, Webb WR, King TE. Neurofibromatosis-associated lung disease: a case series and literature review. Eur Respir J 2007; 29 (01) 210-214
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Shino MY, Rabbani S, Belperio JA, Lynch III JP, Weigt SS. Neurofibromatosis-associated diffuse lung disease: case report. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 33 (05) 572-575
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Nalepa P, Wolnicka M. Neurofibromatosis type 1 with interstitial pulmonary lesions diagnosed in adult patient. A case study and literature review [in Polish]. Pneumonol Alergol Pol 2012; 80 (02) 152-157
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Lorentzen T, Madsen H, Lausten-Thomsen MJZ, Bygum A. Spontaneous pneumothorax as a clinical manifestation of neurofibromatosis type 1. BMJ Case Rep 2021; 14 (03) e238694
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Oikonomou A, Vadikolias K, Birbilis T, Bouros D, Prassopoulos P. HRCT findings in the lungs of non-smokers with neurofibromatosis. Eur J Radiol 2011; 80 (03) e520-e523
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Li CY, Chang YL, Chen WC, Lee YC. Pulmonary manifestations and management of proteus syndrome. J Formos Med Assoc 2010; 109 (05) 397-400
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Irion KL, Hocchegger B, Marchiori E. et al. Proteus syndrome: high-resolution CT and CT pulmonary densitovolumetry findings. J Thorac Imaging 2009; 24 (01) 45-48
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Mirmomen SM, Arai AE, Turkbey EB. et al. Cardiothoracic imaging findings of Proteus syndrome. Sci Rep 2021; 11 (01) 6577-6577
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Parvinian A, Cox CW, Hartman TE. Cowden syndrome: a cause of pulmonary cysts. J Thorac Imaging 2018; 33 (06) W48-W50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Budhram B, Akbari A, Brown P. et al. End-stage kidney disease in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a 12-year study based on the Canadian Organ Replacement Registry. Can J Kidney Health Dis 2018; 5: 20543 58118778568
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Li HY, Cosgrove GP, Swigris JJ. Dyspnea in a 43-year-old woman with polycystic kidney disease. Chest 2009; 135 (01) 238-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Levy N, Hota P, Kumaran M. Coexisting cystic lung disease as a rare extra-renal manifestation of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Radiol Case Rep 2018; 13 (05) 1048-1052
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Fintelmann FJ, Brinkmann JK, Jeck WR. et al. Lung cancers associated with cystic airspaces: natural history, pathologic correlation, and mutational analysis. J Thorac Imaging 2017; 32 (03) 176-188
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Kho SS, Yong MC, Chan SK, Tie ST. A lung full of cheerios. Thorax 2018; 73 (10) 994-995
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Reed SL, O'Neil KM. Cheerios in the chest. Chest 1993; 104 (04) 1267-1268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Traweek T, Rotter AJ, Swartz W, Azumi N. Cystic pulmonary metastatic sarcoma. Cancer 1990; 65 (08) 1805-1811
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Chan DP, Griffith JF, Lee TW, Chow LT, Yim AP. Cystic pulmonary metastases from epithelioid cell sarcoma. Ann Thorac Surg 2003; 75 (05) 1652-1654
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Aubry MC, Myers JL, Colby TV, Leslie KO, Tazelaar HD. Endometrial stromal sarcoma metastatic to the lung: a detailed analysis of 16 patients. Am J Surg Pathol 2002; 26 (04) 440-449
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Ajayi AA, Commins SV, Clarke DE. Metastatic angiosarcoma of the scalp presenting with cystic lung lesions: a case report and review of cystic lung diseases. Perm J 2018; 22: 17-168
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Abrams J, Talcott J, Corson JM. Pulmonary metastases in patients with low-grade endometrial stromal sarcoma. Clinicopathologic findings with immunohistochemical characterization. Am J Surg Pathol 1989; 13 (02) 133-140
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Kushima H, Ishii H, Yokoyama A, Kadota J. Lung adenocarcinoma presenting with diffuse multiloculated cystic lesions. Intern Med 2013; 52 (20) 2375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 Imokawa S, Uehara M, Uto T. et al. Pulmonary metastasis from urothelial carcinoma showing progressive multiple cystic lesions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188 (10) 1267-1268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Stefani A, Rossi G, Pecchi A. et al. An unusual case of cystic interstitial lung disease. Lancet 2013; 381 (9873): 1246
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Hoag JB, Sherman M, Fasihuddin Q, Lund ME. A comprehensive review of spontaneous pneumothorax complicating sarcoma. Chest 2010; 138 (03) 510-518
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Tateishi U, Hasegawa T, Kusumoto M. et al. Metastatic angiosarcoma of the lung: spectrum of CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 180 (06) 1671-1674
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Somasekharan Nair KK, Zabell AS, Vo KL, Shaikh MA. Pneumothorax: a classical presentation of metastatic scalp angiosarcoma. Ann Thorac Surg 2012; 94 (03) e77-e78
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Yogi A, Miyara T, Ogawa K. et al. Pulmonary metastases from angiosarcoma: a spectrum of CT findings. Acta Radiol 2016; 57 (01) 41-46
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Aryal S, Chu C, Morehead RS. An 83-year-old man with bilateral spontaneous pneumothoraces and multiple cysts. Chest 2011; 139 (06) 1536-1539
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Hardak E, Brook O, Yigla M. Radiological features of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in immunocompromised patients with and without AIDS. Lung 2010; 188 (02) 159-163
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Chow C, Templeton PA, White CS. Lung cysts associated with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: radiographic characteristics, natural history, and complications. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 161 (03) 527-531
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Adams HJA, Kwee TC, Yakar D, Hope MD, Kwee RM. Chest CT imaging signature of coronavirus disease 2019 infection: in pursuit of the scientific evidence. Chest 2020; 158 (05) 1885-1895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Zoumot Z, Bonilla M-F, Wahla AS. et al. Pulmonary cavitation: an under-recognized late complication of severe COVID-19 lung disease. BMC Pulm Med 2021; 21 (01) 24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Shi H, Han X, Jiang N. et al. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20 (04) 425-434
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 148 Ye Z, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Huang Z, Song B. Chest CT manifestations of new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a pictorial review. Eur Radiol 2020; 30 (08) 4381-4389
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 Zhou S, Wang Y, Zhu T, Xia L. CT features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pneumonia in 62 patients in Wuhan, China. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2020; 214 (06) 1287-1294
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 150 Aggarwal A, Tandon A, Bhatt S, Aggarwal A, Dagar S, Bansal H. COVID19 pneumonia with cavitation and cystic lung changes: multi-detector computed tomography spectrum of a gamut of etiologies. BJR Open 2021; 3 (01) 20210007-20210007
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 151 Perim J, Pimenta ES, Marchiori E. Cystic tuberculosis: a very unusual aspect of a common disease. Pulmonology 2020; 26 (06) 400-403
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 152 Erdem G, Bergert L, Len K, Melish M, Kon K, DiMauro R. Radiological findings of community-acquired methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus pediatric pneumonia in Hawaii. Pediatr Radiol 2010; 40 (11) 1768-1773
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 153 Zamora EA, Aeddula NR. Tuberous Sclerosis. StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing LLC; 2022
    Google Scholar
  • 154 De Waele L, Lagae L, Mekahli D. Tuberous sclerosis complex: the past and the future. Pediatr Nephrol 2015; 30: 1771-1780
    Google Scholar
  • 155 Qin B, Wang J, Yang Z. et al. Epidemiology of primary Sjögren's syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Rheum Dis 2015; 74: 1983-1989
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 156 Parambil JG, Myers JL, Lindell RM, Matteson EL, Ryu JH. Interstitial lung disease in primary Sjögren syndrome. Chest 2006; 130: 1489-1495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 157 Ito I, Nagai S, Kitaichi M. et al. Pulmonary manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: a clinical, radiologic, and pathologic study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171: 632-638
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 158 Natalini JG, Johr C, Kreider M. . Pulmonary involvement in Sjögren syndrome. Clin Chest Med 2019; 40: 531-544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 159 Lohrmann C, Uhl M, Warnatz K. et al. High-resolution CT imaging of the lung for patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Eur J Radiol 2004; 52: 137-143
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 160 Martínez-Balzano CD, Touray S, Kopec S. Cystic lung disease among patients with Sjögren syndrome: frequency, natural history, and associated risk factors. Chest 2016; 150: 631-639
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 161 Dal Sasso AA, Belém LC, Zanetti G. et al. Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. State-of-the-art review with emphasis on pulmonary involvement. Respir Med 2015; 109: 289-296
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 162 Kyle RA, Larson DR, Kurtin PJ. et al. Incidence of AL amyloidosis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1990 through 2015. Mayo Clin Proc 2019; 94: 465-471
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 163 Quock TP, Yan T, Chang E, Guthrie S, Broder MS. Epidemiology of AL amyloidosis: a real-world study using US claims data. Blood Adv 2018; 2: 1046-1053
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 164 Zamora AC, White DB, Sykes AM. et al. Amyloid-associated cystic lung disease. Chest 2016; 149: 1223-1233
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 165 Berk JL, O'Regan A, Skinner M. Pulmonary and tracheobronchial amyloidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 23: 155-165
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 166 Rajapreyar I, Joly J, Tallaj J. et al. Pulmonary vascular disease due to plasma cell dyscrasia. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes 2021; 5: 210-218
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 167 Baqir M, Moua T, White D, Yi ES, Ryu JH. Pulmonary nodular and cystic light chain deposition disease: a retrospective review of 10 cases. Respir Med 2020; 164: 105896
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 168 Willey C, Kamat S, Stellhorn R, Blais J. Analysis of nationwide data to determine the incidence and diagnosed prevalence of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease in the USA: 2013–2015. Kidney Dis (Basel) 2019; 5: 107-117
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 169 Levy M, Feingold J. Estimating prevalence in single-gene kidney diseases progressing to renal failure. Kidney Int 2000; 58: 925-943
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 170 Kaul B, Cottin V, Collard HR, Valenzuela C. Variability in global prevalence of interstitial lung disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8: 751181
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 171 Remy-Jardin M, Giraud F, Remy J, Copin MC, Gosselin B, Duhamel A. Importance of ground-glass attenuation in chronic diffuse infiltrative lung disease: pathologic-CT correlation. Radiology 1993; 189: 693-698
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 172 Hansell DM, Bankier AA, MacMahon H, McLoud TC, Müller NL, Remy J. Fleischner Society: glossary of terms for thoracic imaging. Radiology 2008; 246: 697-722
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar