Semin Liver Dis 2020; 40(02): 101-110
DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-3399561
Review Article
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Epidemiology of Liver Cancer in Latin America: Current and Future Trends

Flair Jose Carrilho
1   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Division of Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Gastroenterology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
2   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de São Paulo, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
,
Denise Cerqueira Paranaguá-Vezozzo
1   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Division of Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Gastroenterology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
2   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de São Paulo, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
,
Aline Lopes Chagas
1   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Division of Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Gastroenterology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
2   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de São Paulo, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
,
Regiane Saraiva de Souza Melo Alencar
1   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Division of Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Gastroenterology, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
2   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de São Paulo, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
,
Leonardo Gomes da Fonseca
2   São Paulo Clínicas Liver Cancer Group – Hospital das Clínicas Complex, Instituto do Cancer do Estado de São Paulo, University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
› Institutsangaben
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Publikationsdatum:
11. November 2019 (online)

Abstract

Over 38,000 cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are estimated to occur in Latin America annually. The region is characterized by sociocultural heterogeneity and economic disparities, which impose barriers in addressing this major health issue. A significant proportion of patients are still diagnosed in the later stages of the disease, although efforts to implement effective screening programs have been reported by referral centers. While viral hepatitis remains the predominant etiology of liver disease among HCC cases in Latin America, a high prevalence of fatty liver disease in the region is a matter of concern, reflecting the current scenario in many Western countries. In addition, other risk factors such as alcohol, aflatoxin, and early-onset HCC in hepatitis B virus infection contribute to the burden of HCC in Latin America. Interventions to increase screening coverage, expand healthcare access, and implement continuing medical training are key challenges to be overcome.

 
  • References

  • 1 Fitzmaurice C, Akinyemiju TF, Al Lami FH. , et al; Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration. Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 29 cancer groups, 1990 to 2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study. JAMA Oncol 2018; 4 (11) 1553-1568
  • 2 Liu Z, Jiang Y, Yuan H. , et al. The trends in incidence of primary liver cancer caused by specific etiologies: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 and implications for liver cancer prevention. J Hepatol 2019; 70 (04) 674-683
  • 3 Ryerson AB, Eheman CR, Altekruse SF. , et al. Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, 1975-2012, featuring the increasing incidence of liver cancer. Cancer 2016; 122 (09) 1312-1337
  • 4 Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med 2006; 3 (11) e442
  • 5 Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin 2018; 68 (06) 394-424
  • 6 Forner A, Reig M, Bruix J. Hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 2018; 391 (10127): 1301-1314
  • 7 Bertuccio P, Turati F, Carioli G. , et al. Global trends and predictions in hepatocellular carcinoma mortality. J Hepatol 2017; 67 (02) 302-309
  • 8 Reig M, Boix L, Mariño Z, Torres F, Forns X, Bruix J. Liver cancer emergence associated with antiviral treatment: an immune surveillance failure?. Semin Liver Dis 2017; 37 (02) 109-118
  • 9 Chang M-H, You S-L, Chen C-J. , et al; Taiwan Hepatoma Study Group. Long-term effects of hepatitis B immunization of infants in preventing liver cancer. Gastroenterology 2016; 151 (03) 472-480.e1
  • 10 Baten J. , International Economic History Association. A History of the Global Economy: From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press; 2016
  • 11 Human Development Reports. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI . Accessed August 13, 2019
  • 12 Current health expenditure (% of GDP) | Data. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS . Accessed August 13, 2019
  • 13 Kikuchi L, Chagas AL, Alencar RSSM. , et al. Adherence to BCLC recommendations for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: impact on survival according to stage. Clinics (São Paulo) 2017; 72 (08) 454-460
  • 14 Piñero F, Marciano S, Fernández N. , et al; Argentinean Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (A.A.E.E.H). Adherence to Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer therapeutic algorithm for hepatocellular carcinoma in the daily practice: a multicenter cohort study from Argentina. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 30 (04) 376-383
  • 15 Debes JD, Chan AJ, Balderramo D. , et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in South America: evaluation of risk factors, demographics and therapy. Liver Int 2018; 38 (01) 136-143
  • 16 Sangiovanni A, Prati GM, Fasani P. , et al. The natural history of compensated cirrhosis due to hepatitis C virus: A 17-year cohort study of 214 patients. Hepatology 2006; 43 (06) 1303-1310
  • 17 Park J-W, Chen M, Colombo M. , et al. Global patterns of hepatocellular carcinoma management from diagnosis to death: the BRIDGE Study. Liver Int 2015; 35 (09) 2155-2166
  • 18 Chan AJ, Balderramo D, Kikuchi L. , et al. Early age hepatocellular carcinoma associated with hepatitis B infection in South America. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 15 (10) 1631-1632
  • 19 Devesa M, Loureiro CL, Rivas Y. , et al. Subgenotype diversity of hepatitis B virus American genotype F in Amerindians from Venezuela and the general population of Colombia. J Med Virol 2008; 80 (01) 20-26
  • 20 Arauz-Ruiz P, Norder H, Visoná KA, Magnius LO. Genotype F prevails in HBV infected patients of Hispanic origin in Central America and may carry the precore stop mutant. J Med Virol 1997; 51 (04) 305-312
  • 21 Devesa M, Pujol FH. Hepatitis B virus genetic diversity in Latin America. Virus Res 2007; 127 (02) 177-184
  • 22 Carrilho FJ, Kikuchi L, Branco F, Goncalves CS, Mattos AA. ; Brazilian HCC Study Group. Clinical and epidemiological aspects of hepatocellular carcinoma in Brazil. Clinics (São Paulo) 2010; 65 (12) 1285-1290
  • 23 Gonçalves CS, Pereira FE, Gayotto LC. Hepatocellular carcinoma in Brazil: report of a national survey (Florianópolis, SC, 1995). Rev Inst Med Trop São Paulo 1997; 39 (03) 165-170
  • 24 Pawlotsky J-M, Negro F, Aghemo A. , et al; European Association for the Study of the Liver. Electronic address: easloffice@easloffice.eu; European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL recommendations on treatment of hepatitis C 2018. J Hepatol 2018; 69 (02) 461-511
  • 25 Piñero F, Mendizabal M, Ridruejo E. , et al; LALREAN. Treatment with direct-acting antivirals for HCV decreases but does not eliminate the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int 2019; 39 (06) 1033-1043
  • 26 Conti F, Buonfiglioli F, Scuteri A. , et al. Early occurrence and recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma in HCV-related cirrhosis treated with direct-acting antivirals. J Hepatol 2016; 65 (04) 727-733
  • 27 Younossi ZM. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: implications for liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2018; 24 (02) 166-170
  • 28 LaBrecque DR, Abbas Z, Anania F. , et al; Review Team; World Gastroenterology Organisation. World Gastroenterology Organisation global guidelines: nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2014; 48 (06) 467-473
  • 29 Kanwal F, Kramer JR, Mapakshi S. , et al. Risk of hepatocellular cancer in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 2018; 155 (06) 1828-1837.e2
  • 30 Reig M, Gambato M, Man NK. , et al. Should patients with NAFLD/NASH be surveyed for HCC?. Transplantation 2019; 103 (01) 39-44
  • 31 Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M. , et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014; 384 (9945): 766-781
  • 32 Younossi ZM, Koenig AB, Abdelatif D, Fazel Y, Henry L, Wymer M. Global epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-Meta-analytic assessment of prevalence, incidence, and outcomes. Hepatology 2016; 64 (01) 73-84
  • 33 Cotrim HP, Oliveira CP, Coelho HSM. , et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma: Brazilian survey. Clinics (São Paulo) 2016; 71 (05) 281-284
  • 34 Piñero F, Pages J, Marciano S. , et al. Fatty liver disease, an emerging etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Argentina. World J Hepatol 2018; 10 (01) 41-50
  • 35 Roblero J, Henríquez V, Torres F. , et al. Non alcoholic fatty liver disease: main etiology of cirrhosis in patients with carcinoma hepatocellular in two hospitals of Santiago, Chile. Ann Hepatol 2018; 17 (06) 1151 (abs 171)
  • 36 Ruiz E, Sanchez J, Celis J. , et al. Short and long-term results of liver resection for hepatocarcinoma in Peru: a Peruvian single center experience on 232 cases [in Spanish]. Rev Gastroenterol Peru 2007; 27 (03) 223-237
  • 37 Esnaola NF, Mirza N, Lauwers GY. , et al. Comparison of clinicopathologic characteristics and outcomes after resection in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma treated in the United States, France, and Japan. Ann Surg 2003; 238 (05) 711-719
  • 38 Bertani S, Pineau P, Loli S. , et al. An atypical age-specific pattern of hepatocellular carcinoma in Peru: a threat for Andean populations. PLoS One 2013; 8 (06) e67756
  • 39 MacLachlan JH, Cowie BC. Hepatitis B virus epidemiology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2015; 5 (05) a021410
  • 40 Marchio A, Bertani S, Rojas Rojas T. , et al. A peculiar mutation spectrum emerging from young Peruvian patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. PLoS One 2014; 9 (12) e114912
  • 41 Marchio A, Cerapio JP, Ruiz E. , et al. Early-onset liver cancer in South America associates with low hepatitis B virus DNA burden. Sci Rep 2018; 8 (01) 12031
  • 42 Liu Y, Wu F. Global burden of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118 (06) 818-824
  • 43 Wild CP, Gong YY. Mycotoxins and human disease: a largely ignored global health issue. Carcinogenesis 2010; 31 (01) 71-82
  • 44 Groopman JD, Johnson D, Kensler TW. Aflatoxin and hepatitis B virus biomarkers: a paradigm for complex environmental exposures and cancer risk. Cancer Biomark 2005; 1 (01) 5-14
  • 45 Plymoth A, Viviani S, Hainaut P. Control of hepatocellular carcinoma through hepatitis B vaccination in areas of high endemicity: perspectives for global liver cancer prevention. Cancer Lett 2009; 286 (01) 15-21
  • 46 Nogueira JA, Ono-Nita SK, Nita ME. , et al. 249 TP53 mutation has high prevalence and is correlated with larger and poorly differentiated HCC in Brazilian patients. BMC Cancer 2009; 9 (01) 204
  • 47 Zhang B-H, Yang B-H, Tang Z-Y. Randomized controlled trial of screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2004; 130 (07) 417-422
  • 48 Galle PR, Forner A, Llovet JM. , et al; European Association for the Study of the Liver. Electronic address: easloffice@easloffice.eu; European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines: management of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2018; 69 (01) 182-236
  • 49 Di Bisceglie AM, Sterling RK, Chung RT. , et al; HALT-C Trial Group. Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels in patients with advanced hepatitis C: results from the HALT-C Trial. J Hepatol 2005; 43 (03) 434-441
  • 50 Villanueva A, Minguez B, Forner A, Reig M, Llovet JM. Hepatocellular carcinoma: novel molecular approaches for diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. Annu Rev Med 2010; 61 (01) 317-328
  • 51 Paranaguá-Vezozzo DC, Ono SK, Alvarado-Mora MV. , et al. Epidemiology of HCC in Brazil: incidence and risk factors in a ten-year cohort. Ann Hepatol 2014; 13 (04) 386-393
  • 52 Fassio E, Díaz S, Santa C. , et al; Multicenter Group for Study of Hepatocarcinoma in Latin America; Asociación Latinoamericana para el Estudio del Hígado (ALEH). Etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Latin America: a prospective, multicenter, international study. Ann Hepatol 2010; 9 (01) 63-69
  • 53 Appel-da-Silva MC, Miozzo Sda S, Dossin IA, Tovo CV, Branco F, de Mattos AA. Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in outpatients with cirrhosis in Brazil: a 10-year retrospective cohort study. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22 (46) 10219-10225
  • 54 Piñero F, Marciano S, Anders M. , et al. Screening for liver cancer during transplant waiting list: a multicenter study from South America. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015; 27 (03) 355-360
  • 55 Tzartzeva K, Obi J, Rich NE. , et al. Surveillance imaging and alpha fetoprotein for early detection of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2018; 154 (06) 1706-1718.e1
  • 56 Bruix J, Sherman M, Llovet JM. , et al; EASL Panel of Experts on HCC; European Association for the Study of the Liver. Clinical management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Conclusions of the Barcelona-2000 EASL conference. J Hepatol 2001; 35 (03) 421-430
  • 57 Heimbach JK, Kulik LM, Finn RS. , et al. AASLD guidelines for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2018; 67 (01) 358-380
  • 58 Piñero F, Tisi Baña M, de Ataide EC. , et al; Latin American Liver Research, Education and Awareness Network (LALREAN). Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: evaluation of the alpha-fetoprotein model in a multicenter cohort from Latin America. Liver Int 2016; 36 (11) 1657-1667
  • 59 Ayuso C, Rimola J, Vilana R. , et al. Diagnosis and staging of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): current guidelines. Eur J Radiol 2018; 101: 72-81
  • 60 Méndez-Sánchez N, Ridruejo E, Alves de Mattos A. , et al. Latin American Association for the Study of the Liver (LAASL) clinical practice guidelines: management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Hepatol 2014; 13 (Suppl. 01) S4-S40
  • 61 Marrero JA, Fontana RJ, Barrat A. , et al. Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of 7 staging systems in an American cohort. Hepatology 2005; 41 (04) 707-716
  • 62 Forner A, Reig ME, de Lope CR, Bruix J. Current strategy for staging and treatment: the BCLC update and future prospects. Semin Liver Dis 2010; 30 (01) 61-74
  • 63 Kim KM, Sinn DH, Jung S-H. , et al. The recommended treatment algorithms of the BCLC and HKLC staging systems: does following these always improve survival rates for HCC patients?. Liver Int 2016; 36 (10) 1490-1497
  • 64 Guarino M, Tortora R, de Stefano G. , et al; Progetto Epatocarcinoma Campania Group. Adherence to Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer guidelines in field practice: results of Progetto Epatocarcinoma Campania. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 33 (05) 1123-1130
  • 65 Andraus W. Barriers and limitations to access to liver transplantation in Latin America. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 2019; 13 (02) 36-38
  • 66 Yang JD, Larson JJ, Watt KD. , et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common indication for liver transplantation and placement on the waitlist in the United States. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 15 (05) 767-775.e3
  • 67 Gabrielli M, Vivanco M, Hepp J. , et al. Liver transplantation results for hepatocellular carcinoma in Chile. Transplant Proc 2010; 42 (01) 299-301
  • 68 Hoyos S, Escobar J, Cardona D. , et al. Factors associated with recurrence and survival in liver transplant patients with HCC--a single center retrospective study. Ann Hepatol 2015; 14 (01) 58-63
  • 69 Piñero F, Marciano S, Anders M. , et al. Identifying patients at higher risk of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation in a multicenter cohort study from Argentina. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016; 28 (04) 421-427
  • 70 Salvalaggio PR, Felga G, Axelrod DA, Della Guardia B, Almeida MD, Rezende MB. List and liver transplant survival according to waiting time in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Am J Transplant 2015; 15 (03) 668-677
  • 71 Chagas AL, Felga GEG, Diniz MA. , et al; Brazilian HCC Study Group. Hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence after liver transplantation in a Brazilian multicenter study: clinical profile and prognostic factors of survival. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 31 (09) 1148-1156
  • 72 Sapisochin G, Bruix J. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: outcomes and novel surgical approaches. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 14 (04) 203-217
  • 73 Llovet JM, Ricci S, Mazzaferro V. , et al; SHARP Investigators Study Group. Sorafenib in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2008; 359 (04) 378-390
  • 74 Cheng A-L, Kang Y-K, Chen Z. , et al. Efficacy and safety of sorafenib in patients in the Asia-Pacific region with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a phase III randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 2009; 10 (01) 25-34
  • 75 Leathers JS, Balderramo D, Prieto J. , et al. Sorafenib for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a survival analysis from the South American Liver Research Network. J Clin Gastroenterol 2019; 53 (06) 464-469
  • 76 Piñero F, Marciano S, Fernández N. , et al. Intermediate-advanced hepatocellular carcinoma in Argentina: treatment and survival analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2019; 25 (27) 3607-3618
  • 77 DA Fonseca LG, Barroso-Sousa R, Bento AD. , et al. Safety and efficacy of sorafenib in patients with Child-Pugh B advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Mol Clin Oncol 2015; 3 (04) 793-796
  • 78 Bruix J, Qin S, Merle P. , et al; RESORCE Investigators. Regorafenib for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who progressed on sorafenib treatment (RESORCE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2017; 389 (10064): 56-66
  • 79 Abou-Alfa GK, Meyer T, Cheng A-L. , et al. Cabozantinib in patients with advanced and progressing hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2018; 379 (01) 54-63
  • 80 Zhu AX, Kang Y-K, Yen C-J. , et al; REACH-2 Study Investigators. Ramucirumab after sorafenib in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma and increased α-fetoprotein concentrations (REACH-2): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 2019; 20 (02) 282-296
  • 81 da Fonseca LG, Marta GN, Braghiroli MIFM. , et al. Safety and efficacy of cytotoxic chemotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma after first-line treatment with sorafenib. BMC Cancer 2018; 18 (01) 1250