PDF herunterladen
Semin Neurol 2019; 39(03): 312-321
DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1687838
Review Article
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Imaging in Encephalitis

Arun Venkatesan 
1   Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins Encephalitis Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
,
Balaji Jagdish
1   Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins Encephalitis Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
› Institutsangaben
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Publikationsdatum:
02. August 2019 (online)

    Lizenzen und Reprints

Abstract

Despite recent advances in diagnostic and therapeutic modalities for infectious and autoimmune encephalitis, the management of patients with suspected or confirmed encephalitis poses a great challenge to physicians. Neuroimaging, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, can play a crucial role in substantiating the diagnosis of encephalitis and eliminating clinical mimics of encephalitis from consideration. Moreover, characteristic neuroimaging patterns can aid in defining specific infectious and autoimmune etiologies. Volumetric and functional MRI, in particular, are being increasingly used to characterize outcomes following encephalitis and can shed light on brain reorganization and function after the acute phase of disease has resolved. Here, we discuss the uses of structural, functional, and PET neuroimaging in the clinical assessment of the acute and recovery phases of encephalitis.

Keywords

autoimmune encephalitis - infectious encephalitis - MRI - outcomes - prognosis
 

  • References

  • 1 Vallabhaneni D, Naveed MA, Mangla R, Zidan A, Mehta RI. Perfusion imaging in autoimmune encephalitis. Case Rep Radiol 2018; 2018: 3538645
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Graus F, Titulaer MJ, Balu R. , et al. A clinical approach to diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15 (04) 391-404
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Steiner I, Budka H, Chaudhuri A. , et al. Viral encephalitis: a review of diagnostic methods and guidelines for management. Eur J Neurol 2005; 12 (05) 331-343
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Schroth G, Kretzschmar K, Gawehn J, Voigt K. Advantage of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of cerebral infections. Neuroradiology 1987; 29 (02) 120-126
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Marchbank ND, Howlett DC, Sallomi DF, Hughes DV. Magnetic resonance imaging is preferred in diagnosing suspected cerebral infections. BMJ 2000; 320 (7228): 187-188
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Kiroğlu Y, Calli C, Yunten N. , et al. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of viral encephalitis. Neuroradiology 2006; 48 (12) 875-880
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Tsuchiya K, Katase S, Yoshino A, Hachiya J. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of encephalitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 173 (04) 1097-1099
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Venkatesan A, Tunkel AR, Bloch KC. , et al; International Encephalitis Consortium Case definitions, diagnostic algorithms, and priorities in encephalitis: consensus statement of the international encephalitis consortium. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57 (08) 1114-1128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Bertrand A, Leclercq D, Martinez-Almoyna L, Girard N, Stahl JP, De-Broucker T. MR imaging of adult acute infectious encephalitis. Med Mal Infect 2017; 47 (03) 195-205
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Rath TJ, Hughes M, Arabi M, Shah GV. Imaging of cerebritis, encephalitis, and brain abscess. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2012; 22 (04) 585-607
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Defres S, Keller SS, Das K. , et al; ENCEPH UK study group A feasibility study of quantifying longitudinal brain changes in herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and stereology. PLoS One 2017; 12 (01) e0170215
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Chow FC, Glaser CA, Sheriff H. , et al. Use of clinical and neuroimaging characteristics to distinguish temporal lobe herpes simplex encephalitis from its mimics. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60 (09) 1377-1383
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Tan IL, McArthur JC, Venkatesan A, Nath A. Atypical manifestations and poor outcome of herpes simplex encephalitis in the immunocompromised. Neurology 2012; 79 (21) 2125-2132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Whitley RJ, Cobbs CG, Alford Jr CA. , et al; NIAD Collaborative Antiviral Study Group Diseases that mimic herpes simplex encephalitis. Diagnosis, presentation, and outcome. JAMA 1989; 262 (02) 234-239
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Kelley BP, Patel SC, Marin HL, Corrigan JJ, Mitsias PD, Griffith B. Autoimmune encephalitis: pathophysiology and imaging review of an overlooked diagnosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2017; 38 (06) 1070-1078
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 da Rocha AJ, Nunes RH, Maia Jr AC, do Amaral LL. Recognizing autoimmune-mediated encephalitis in the differential diagnosis of limbic disorders. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2015; 36 (12) 2196-2205
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Gultekin SH, Rosenfeld MR, Voltz R, Eichen J, Posner JB, Dalmau J. Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis: neurological symptoms, immunological findings and tumour association in 50 patients. Brain 2000; 123 (Pt 7): 1481-1494
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Dalmau J, Graus F, Villarejo A. , et al. Clinical analysis of anti-Ma2-associated encephalitis. Brain 2004; 127 (Pt 8): 1831-1844
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Heine J, Prüss H, Bartsch T, Ploner CJ, Paul F, Finke C. Imaging of autoimmune encephalitis--relevance for clinical practice and hippocampal function. Neuroscience 2015; 309: 68-83
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Saiz A, Blanco Y, Sabater L. , et al. Spectrum of neurological syndromes associated with glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies: diagnostic clues for this association. Brain 2008; 131 (Pt 10): 2553-2563
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Höftberger R, Titulaer MJ, Sabater L. , et al. Encephalitis and GABAB receptor antibodies: novel findings in a new case series of 20 patients. Neurology 2013; 81 (17) 1500-1506
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Knox J, Cowan RU, Doyle JS. , et al. Murray Valley encephalitis: a review of clinical features, diagnosis and treatment. Med J Aust 2012; 196 (05) 322-326
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Wong SH, Smith DW, Fallon MJ, Kermode AG. Murray valley encephalitis mimicking herpes simplex encephalitis. J Clin Neurosci 2005; 12 (07) 822-824
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Deresiewicz RL, Thaler SJ, Hsu L, Zamani AA. Clinical and neuroradiographic manifestations of eastern equine encephalitis. N Engl J Med 1997; 336 (26) 1867-1874
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Beattie GC, Glaser CA, Sheriff H. , et al. Encephalitis with thalamic and basal ganglia abnormalities: etiologies, neuroimaging, and potential role of respiratory viruses. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56 (06) 825-832
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Solomon T, Kneen R, Dung NM. , et al. Poliomyelitis-like illness due to Japanese encephalitis virus. Lancet 1998; 351 (9109): 1094-1097
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Ooi MH, Wong SC, Lewthwaite P, Cardosa MJ, Solomon T. Clinical features, diagnosis, and management of enterovirus 71. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9 (11) 1097-1105
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Jain H, Deshpande A, Favaz AM, Rajagopal KV. MRI in rabies encephalitis. BMJ Case Rep 2013 ;2013. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2013-201825
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Handique SK, Das RR, Barman K. , et al. Temporal lobe involvement in Japanese encephalitis: problems in differential diagnosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2006; 27 (05) 1027-1031
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Basumatary LJ, Raja D, Bhuyan D, Das M, Goswami M, Kayal AK. Clinical and radiological spectrum of Japanese encephalitis. J Neurol Sci 2013; 325 (1–2): 15-21
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Dale RC, Merheb V, Pillai S. , et al. Antibodies to surface dopamine-2 receptor in autoimmune movement and psychiatric disorders. Brain 2012; 135 (Pt 11): 3453-3468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Jubelt B, Mihai C, Li TM, Veerapaneni P. Rhombencephalitis/brainstem encephalitis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2011; 11 (06) 543-552
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Tan IL, Mowry EM, Steele SU. , et al. Brainstem encephalitis: etiologies, treatment, and predictors of outcome. J Neurol 2013; 260 (09) 2312-2319
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Charlier C, Poirée S, Delavaud C. , et al; MONALISA Study Group Imaging of human neurolisteriosis: a prospective study of 71 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67 (09) 1419-1426
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Moragas M, Martínez-Yélamos S, Majós C, Fernández-Viladrich P, Rubio F, Arbizu T. Rhombencephalitis: a series of 97 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2011; 90 (04) 256-261
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Chen F, Liu T, Li J, Xing Z, Huang S, Wen G. MRI characteristics and follow-up findings in patients with neurological complications of enterovirus 71-related hand, foot, and mouth disease. Int J Clin Exp Med 2014; 7 (09) 2696-2704
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Compain C, Sacre K, Puéchal X. , et al. Central nervous system involvement in Whipple disease: clinical study of 18 patients and long-term follow-up. Medicine (Baltimore) 2013; 92 (06) 324-330
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Black DF, Aksamit AJ, Morris JM. MR imaging of central nervous system Whipple disease: a 15-year review. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2010; 31 (08) 1493-1497
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Lu Z, Zhang B, Qiu W. , et al. Comparative brain stem lesions on MRI of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, and multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2011; 6 (08) e22766
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Tobin WO, Guo Y, Krecke KN. , et al. Diagnostic criteria for chronic lymphocytic inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids (CLIPPERS). Brain 2017; 140 (09) 2415-2425
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Gilden D, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: diverse clinical manifestations, laboratory features, pathogenesis, and treatment. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8 (08) 731-740
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Bradshaw MJ, Lalor KB, Vu N, Pruthi S, Bloch KC. Child neurology: Rocky Mountain spotted fever encephalitis. Neurology 2017; 88 (11) e92-e95
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Agarwal R, Sze G. Neuro-lyme disease: MR imaging findings. Radiology 2009; 253 (01) 167-173
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Agosta F, Rocca MA, Benedetti B, Capra R, Cordioli C, Filippi M. MR imaging assessment of brain and cervical cord damage in patients with neuroborreliosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2006; 27 (04) 892-894
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Sahraian MA, Radue EW, Eshaghi A, Besliu S, Minagar A. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a review of the neuroimaging features and differential diagnosis. Eur J Neurol 2012; 19 (08) 1060-1069
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Berger JR, Aksamit AJ, Clifford DB. , et al. PML diagnostic criteria: consensus statement from the AAN Neuroinfectious Disease Section. Neurology 2013; 80 (15) 1430-1438
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Bulakbasi N, Kocaoglu M, Tayfun C, Ucoz T. Transient splenial lesion of the corpus callosum in clinically mild influenza-associated encephalitis/encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2006; 27 (09) 1983-1986
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Gallucci M, Limbucci N, Paonessa A, Caranci F. Reversible focal splenial lesions. Neuroradiology 2007; 49 (07) 541-544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Young NP, Weinshenker BG, Parisi JE. , et al. Perivenous demyelination: association with clinically defined acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and comparison with pathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis. Brain 2010; 133 (Pt 2): 333-348
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Abou Zeid N, Pirko I, Erickson B. , et al. Diffusion-weighted imaging characteristics of biopsy-proven demyelinating brain lesions. Neurology 2012; 78 (21) 1655-1662
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Spatola M, Petit-Pedrol M, Simabukuro MM. , et al. Investigations in GABAA receptor antibody-associated encephalitis. Neurology 2017; 88 (11) 1012-1020
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Finke C, Kopp UA, Scheel M. , et al. Functional and structural brain changes in anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2013; 74 (02) 284-296
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Wang R, Lai XH, Liu X. , et al. Brain magnetic resonance-imaging findings of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis: a cohort follow-up study in Chinese patients. J Neurol 2018; 265 (02) 362-369
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Zhang T, Duan Y, Ye J. , et al. Brain MRI characteristics of patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis and their associations with 2-year clinical outcome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2018; 39 (05) 824-829
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Probasco JC, Solnes L, Nalluri A. , et al. Decreased occipital lobe metabolism by FDG-PET/CT: an anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis biomarker. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2017; 5 (01) e413
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Irani SR, Michell AW, Lang B. , et al. Faciobrachial dystonic seizures precede Lgi1 antibody limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2011; 69 (05) 892-900
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Flanagan EP, Kotsenas AL, Britton JW. , et al. Basal ganglia T1 hyperintensity in LGI1-autoantibody faciobrachial dystonic seizures. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2015; 2 (06) e161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Dodich A, Cerami C, Iannaccone S. , et al. Neuropsychological and FDG-PET profiles in VGKC autoimmune limbic encephalitis. Brain Cogn 2016; 108: 81-87
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Venkatesan A. Epidemiology and outcomes of acute encephalitis. Curr Opin Neurol 2015; 28 (03) 277-282
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Lancaster E. The diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune encephalitis. J Clin Neurol 2016; 12 (01) 1-13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Sonneville R, Gault N, de Montmollin E. , et al. Clinical spectrum and outcomes of patients with encephalitis requiring intensive care. Eur J Neurol 2015; 22 (01) 6-16 , e1
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Thakur KT, Motta M, Asemota AO. , et al. Predictors of outcome in acute encephalitis. Neurology 2013; 81 (09) 793-800
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Singh TD, Fugate JE, Rabinstein AA. The spectrum of acute encephalitis: causes, management, and predictors of outcome. Neurology 2015; 84 (04) 359-366
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Sutter R, Kaplan PW, Cervenka MC. , et al. Electroencephalography for diagnosis and prognosis of acute encephalitis. Clin Neurophysiol 2015; 126 (08) 1524-1531
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Tsukahara H, Fujii Y, Matsubara K. , et al. Prognostic value of brain injury biomarkers in acute encephalitis/encephalopathy. Pediatr Int 2013; 55 (04) 461-464
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Sellner J, Davies NW, Howard RS, Petzold A. Neurofilament heavy chain as a marker of neuroaxonal pathology and prognosis in acute encephalitis. Eur J Neurol 2014; 21 (06) 845-850
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Michael BD, Griffiths MJ, Granerod J. , et al. The interleukin-1 balance during encephalitis is associated with clinical severity, blood-brain barrier permeability, neuroimaging changes, and disease outcome. J Infect Dis 2016; 213 (10) 1651-1660
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Sili U, Kaya A, Mert A. ; HSV Encephalitis Study Group Herpes simplex virus encephalitis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and outcome in 106 adult patients. J Clin Virol 2014; 60 (02) 112-118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Raschilas F, Wolff M, Delatour F. , et al. Outcome of and prognostic factors for herpes simplex encephalitis in adult patients: results of a multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35 (03) 254-260
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Erdem H, Cag Y, Ozturk-Engin D. , et al. Results of a multinational study suggest the need for rapid diagnosis and early antiviral treatment at the onset of herpetic meningoencephalitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59 (06) 3084-3089
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Caparros-Lefebvre D, Girard-Buttaz I, Reboul S. , et al. Cognitive and psychiatric impairment in herpes simplex virus encephalitis suggest involvement of the amygdalo-frontal pathways. J Neurol 1996; 243 (03) 248-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Reed LJ, Lasserson D, Marsden P, Bright P, Stanhope N, Kopelman MD. Correlations of regional cerebral metabolism with memory performance and executive function in patients with herpes encephalitis or frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychology 2005; 19 (05) 555-565
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Singh TD, Fugate JE, Hocker S, Wijdicks EFM, Aksamit Jr AJ, Rabinstein AA. Predictors of outcome in HSV encephalitis. J Neurol 2016; 263 (02) 277-289
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Davis LE, DeBiasi R, Goade DE. , et al. West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease. Ann Neurol 2006; 60 (03) 286-300
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Murray KO, Nolan MS, Ronca SE. , et al. The neurocognitive and MRI outcomes of West Nile virus infection: preliminary analysis using an external control group. Front Neurol 2018; 9: 111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Sejvar JJ. Clinical manifestations and outcomes of West Nile virus infection. Viruses 2014; 6 (02) 606-623
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Griffiths MJ, Lemon JV, Rayamajhi A. , et al. The functional, social and economic impact of acute encephalitis syndrome in Nepal--a longitudinal follow-up study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7 (09) e2383
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Cao L, Fu S, Gao X. , et al. Low protective efficacy of the current Japanese encephalitis vaccine against the emerging genotype 5 Japanese encephalitis virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10 (05) e0004686
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Ooi MH, Lewthwaite P, Lai BF. , et al. The epidemiology, clinical features, and long-term prognosis of Japanese encephalitis in central sarawak, malaysia, 1997-2005. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47 (04) 458-468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Shoji H, Murakami T, Murai I. , et al. A follow-up study by CT and MRI in 3 cases of Japanese encephalitis. Neuroradiology 1990; 32 (03) 215-219
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Finke C, Kopp UA, Pajkert A. , et al. Structural hippocampal damage following anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79 (09) 727-734
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Finke C, Kopp UA, Prüss H, Dalmau J, Wandinger KP, Ploner CJ. Cognitive deficits following anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83 (02) 195-198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Yeshokumar AK, Gordon-Lipkin E, Arenivas A. , et al. Neurobehavioral outcomes in autoimmune encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 312: 8-14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Peer M, Prüss H, Ben-Dayan I, Paul F, Arzy S, Finke C. Functional connectivity of large-scale brain networks in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational study. Lancet Psychiatry 2017; 4 (10) 768-774
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Li W, Wu S, Meng Q. , et al. Clinical characteristics and short-term prognosis of LGI1 antibody encephalitis: a retrospective case study. BMC Neurol 2018; 18 (01) 96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 van Sonderen A, Thijs RD, Coenders EC. , et al. Anti-LGI1 encephalitis: clinical syndrome and long-term follow-up. Neurology 2016; 87 (14) 1449-1456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Heine J, Prüss H, Kopp UA. , et al. Beyond the limbic system: disruption and functional compensation of large-scale brain networks in patients with anti-LGI1 encephalitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89 (11) 1191-1199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Ariño H, Armangué T, Petit-Pedrol M. , et al. Anti-LGI1-associated cognitive impairment: presentation and long-term outcome. Neurology 2016; 87 (08) 759-765
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Finke C, Prüss H, Heine J. , et al. Evaluation of cognitive deficits and structural hippocampal damage in encephalitis with leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 antibodies. JAMA Neurol 2017; 74 (01) 50-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Navarro V, Kas A, Apartis E. , et al; collaborators Motor cortex and hippocampus are the two main cortical targets in LGI1-antibody encephalitis. Brain 2016; 139 (Pt 4): 1079-1093
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Gadoth A, Pittock SJ, Dubey D. , et al. Expanded phenotypes and outcomes among 256 LGI1/CASPR2-IgG-positive patients. Ann Neurol 2017; 82 (01) 79-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Irani SR, Stagg CJ, Schott JM. , et al. Faciobrachial dystonic seizures: the influence of immunotherapy on seizure control and prevention of cognitive impairment in a broadening phenotype. Brain 2013; 136 (Pt 10): 3151-3162
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Szots M, Blaabjerg M, Orsi G. , et al. Global brain atrophy and metabolic dysfunction in LGI1 encephalitis: a prospective multimodal MRI study. J Neurol Sci 2017; 376: 159-165
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Herranz-Pérez V, Olucha-Bordonau FE, Morante-Redolat JM, Pérez-Tur J. Regional distribution of the leucine-rich glioma inactivated (LGI) gene family transcripts in the adult mouse brain. Brain Res 2010; 1307: 177-194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar