Download PDF
J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2018; 79(01): 091-114
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1625984
Review Article
Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Pediatric Pituitary Adenoma: Case Series, Review of the Literature, and a Skull Base Treatment Paradigm

Avital Perry
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
,
Christopher Salvatore Graffeo
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
,
Christopher Marcellino
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
,
Bruce E. Pollock
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
,
Nicholas M. Wetjen
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
,
Fredric B. Meyer
1   Department of Neurologic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester Minnesota, United States
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
24 January 2018 (online)

Also available at
   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Background Pediatric pituitary adenoma is a rare skull base neoplasm, accounting for 3% of all intracranial neoplasms in children and 5% of pituitary adenomas. Compared with pituitary tumors in adults, secreting tumors predominate and longer disease trajectories are expected due to the patient age resulting in a natural history and treatment paradigm that is complex and controversial.

Objectives The aims of this study were to describe a large, single-institution series of pediatric pituitary adenomas with extensive long-term follow-up and to conduct a systematic review examining outcomes after pituitary adenoma surgery in the pediatric population.

Methods The study cohort was compiled by searching institutional pathology and operative reports using diagnosis and site codes for pituitary and sellar pathology, from 1956 to 2016. Systematic review of the English language literature since 1970 was conducted using PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, and Google Scholar.

Results Thirty-nine surgically managed pediatric pituitary adenomas were identified, including 15 prolactinomas, 14 corticotrophs, 7 somatotrophs, and 4 non-secreting adenomas. All patients underwent transsphenoidal resection (TSR) as the initial surgical treatment. Surgical cure was achieved in 18 (46%); 21 experienced recurrent/persistent disease, with secondary treatments including repeat surgery in 10, radiation in 14, adjuvant pharmacotherapy in 11, and bilateral adrenalectomy in 3. At the last follow-up (median 87 months, range 3–581), nine remained with recurrent/persistent disease (23%).

Thirty-seven publications reporting surgical series of pediatric pituitary adenomas were included, containing 1,284 patients. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting tumors were most prevalent (43%), followed by prolactin (PRL)-secreting (37%), growth hormone (GH)-secreting (12%), and nonsecreting (7%). Surgical cure was reported in 65%. Complications included pituitary insufficiency (23%), permanent visual dysfunction (6%), chronic diabetes insipidus (DI) (3%), and postoperative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak (4%). Mean follow-up was 63 months (range 0–240), with recurrent/persistent disease reported in 18% at the time of last follow-up.

Conclusion Pediatric pituitary adenomas are diverse and challenging tumors with complexities far beyond those encountered in the management of routine adult pituitary disease, including nuanced decision-making, a technically demanding operative environment, high propensity for recurrence, and the potentially serious consequences of hypopituitarism with respect to fertility and growth potential in a pediatric population. Optimal treatment requires a high degree of individualization, and patients are most likely to benefit from consolidated, multidisciplinary care in highly experienced centers.

Keywords

pediatric pituitary adenoma - transsphenoidal surgery - radiotherapy - stereotactic radiosurgery - hypopituitarism

Previous Presentations

Components of this work were presented or submitted as abstracts at the NASBS 2016 and CNS 2017.


 

  • References

  • 1 Espay AJ, Azzarelli B, Williams LS, Bodensteiner JB. Recurrence in pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. J Child Neurol 2001; 16 (05) 364-367
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 2 Kane LA, Leinung MC, Scheithauer BW. , et al. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79 (04) 1135-1140
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 3 Maira G, Anile C. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Can J Neurol Sci 1990; 17 (01) 83-87
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Mindermann T, Wilson CB. Pediatric pituitary adenomas. Neurosurgery 1995; 36 (02) 259-268 , discussion 269
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 Partington MD, Davis DH, Laws Jr ER, Scheithauer BW. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Results of transsphenoidal surgery. J Neurosurg 1994; 80 (02) 209-216
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 6 Abe T, Tara LA, Lüdecke DK. Growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence: features and results of transnasal surgery. Neurosurgery 1999; 45 (01) 1-10
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 Artese R, D'Osvaldo DH, Molocznik I. , et al. Pituitary tumors in adolescent patients. Neurol Res 1998; 20 (05) 415-417
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 8 Dyer EH, Civit T, Visot A, Delalande O, Derome P. Transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenomas in children. Neurosurgery 1994; 34 (02) 207-212 , discussion 212
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Kunwar S, Wilson CB. Pediatric pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84 (12) 4385-4389
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Lafferty AR, Chrousos GP. Pituitary tumors in children and adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84 (12) 4317-4323
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Massoud AF, Powell M, Williams RA, Hindmarsh PC, Brook CG. Transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary tumours. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76 (05) 398-404
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Jane J, Thapar K, Laws E. Pituitary tumors: functioning and nonfunctioning. Youmans Neurological Surgery. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011: 1476-1510
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 13 Jane Jr JA, Laws Jr ER. The surgical management of pituitary adenomas in a series of 3,093 patients. J Am Coll Surg 2001; 193 (06) 651-659
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 14 Joshi SM, Hewitt RJ, Storr HL. , et al. Cushing's disease in children and adolescents: 20 years of experience in a single neurosurgical center. Neurosurgery 2005; 57 (02) 281-285 , discussion 281–285
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 15 Shah NS, George J, Acharya SV. , et al. Cushing disease in children and adolescents: twenty years' experience in a tertiary care center in India. Endocr Pract 2011; 17 (03) 369-376
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Storr HL, Plowman PN, Carroll PV. , et al. Clinical and endocrine responses to pituitary radiotherapy in pediatric Cushing's disease: an effective second-line treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88 (01) 34-37
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 17 Atkinson AB, Kennedy A, Wiggam MI, McCance DR, Sheridan B. Long-term remission rates after pituitary surgery for Cushing's disease: the need for long-term surveillance. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005; 63 (05) 549-559
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 18 Bochicchio D, Losa M, Buchfelder M. Factors influencing the immediate and late outcome of Cushing's disease treated by transsphenoidal surgery: a retrospective study by the European Cushing's Disease Survey Group. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80 (11) 3114-3120
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 19 Rees DA, Hanna FW, Davies JS, Mills RG, Vafidis J, Scanlon MF. Long-term follow-up results of transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease in a single centre using strict criteria for remission. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2002; 56 (04) 541-551
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Benveniste RJ, King WA, Walsh J, Lee JS, Delman BN, Post KD. Repeated transsphenoidal surgery to treat recurrent or residual pituitary adenoma. J Neurosurg 2005; 102 (06) 1004-1012
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Friedman RB, Oldfield EH, Nieman LK. , et al. Repeat transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease. J Neurosurg 1989; 71 (04) 520-527
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 22 Patil CG, Veeravagu A, Prevedello DM, Katznelson L, Vance ML, Laws Jr ER. Outcomes after repeat transsphenoidal surgery for recurrent Cushing's disease. Neurosurgery 2008; 63 (02) 266-270 , discussion 270–271
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 23 Baskin DS, Boggan JE, Wilson CB. Transsphenoidal microsurgical removal of growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas. A review of 137 cases. J Neurosurg 1982; 56 (05) 634-641
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Sudhakar N, Ray A, Vafidis JA. Complications after trans-sphenoidal surgery: our experience and a review of the literature. Br J Neurosurg 2004; 18 (05) 507-512
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Fatemi N, Dusick JR, Mattozo C. , et al. Pituitary hormonal loss and recovery after transsphenoidal adenoma removal. Neurosurgery 2008; 63 (04) 709-718 , discussion 718–719
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 26 Nomikos P, Ladar C, Fahlbusch R, Buchfelder M. Impact of primary surgery on pituitary function in patients with non-functioning pituitary adenomas -- a study on 721 patients. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2004; 146 (01) 27-35
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Katavetin P, Cheunsuchon P, Swearingen B, Hedley-Whyte ET, Misra M, Levitsky LL. Review: Pituitary adenomas in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2010; 23 (05) 427-431
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Keil MF, Stratakis CA. Pituitary tumors in childhood: update of diagnosis, treatment and molecular genetics. Expert Rev Neurother 2008; 8 (04) 563-574
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Liu JK, Couldwell WT. Contemporary management of prolactinomas. Neurosurg Focus 2004; 16 (04) E2
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Faglia G, Spada A. Genesis of pituitary adenomas: state of the art. J Neurooncol 2001; 54 (02) 95-110
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 31 Nishio S, Morioka T, Suzuki S, Takeshita I, Fukui M, Iwaki T. Pituitary tumours in adolescence: clinical behaviour and neuroimaging features of seven cases. J Clin Neurosci 2001; 8 (03) 231-234
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Alexander JM, Biller BM, Bikkal H, Zervas NT, Arnold A, Klibanski A. Clinically nonfunctioning pituitary tumors are monoclonal in origin. J Clin Invest 1990; 86 (01) 336-340
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Spada A, Mantovani G, Lania A. Pathogenesis of prolactinomas. Pituitary 2005; 8 (01) 7-15
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 34 Heaney AP, Melmed S. Molecular targets in pituitary tumours. Nat Rev Cancer 2004; 4 (04) 285-295
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 35 Stratakis CA, Schussheim DH, Freedman SM. , et al. Pituitary macroadenoma in a 5-year-old: an early expression of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85 (12) 4776-4780
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 36 Marx SJ, Agarwal SK, Kester MB. , et al. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: clinical and genetic features of the hereditary endocrine neoplasias. Recent Prog Horm Res 1999; 54: 397-438 , discussion 438–439
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 37 Spada A. Genetic aspects of pituitary tumors. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2001; 14 (Suppl. 05) 1213-1216 , discussion 1261–1262
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 38 Thakker RV, Bouloux P, Wooding C. , et al. Association of parathyroid tumors in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 with loss of alleles on chromosome 11. N Engl J Med 1989; 321 (04) 218-224
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 39 Vergès B, Boureille F, Goudet P. , et al. Pituitary disease in MEN type 1 (MEN1): data from the France-Belgium MEN1 multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87 (02) 457-465
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 40 Asa SL, Ezzat S. The pathogenesis of pituitary tumours. Nat Rev Cancer 2002; 2 (11) 836-849
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 41 Akintoye SO, Chebli C, Booher S. , et al. Characterization of gsp-mediated growth hormone excess in the context of McCune-Albright syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87 (11) 5104-5112
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 42 Koch G, Tiwisina T. [Contribution to the heredity of acromegaly and hyperostosis generalisata with pachyderma (chromophobe hypophysis adenoma in father and son]. Arztl Forsch 1959; 13: 489-504
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 43 Boikos SA, Stratakis CA. Carney complex: pathology and molecular genetics. Neuroendocrinology 2006; 83 (3-4): 189-199
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 44 Boikos SA, Stratakis CA. Pituitary pathology in patients with Carney Complex: growth-hormone producing hyperplasia or tumors and their association with other abnormalities. Pituitary 2006; 9 (03) 203-209
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 45 Kurtkaya-Yapicier O, Scheithauer BW, Carney JA. , et al. Pituitary adenoma in Carney complex: an immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and immunoelectron microscopic study. Ultrastruct Pathol 2002; 26 (06) 345-353
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 46 Pack SD, Kirschner LS, Pak E, Zhuang Z, Carney JA, Stratakis CA. Genetic and histologic studies of somatomammotropic pituitary tumors in patients with the “complex of spotty skin pigmentation, myxomas, endocrine overactivity and schwannomas” (Carney complex). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85 (10) 3860-3865
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 47 Beckers A, Aaltonen LA, Daly AF, Karhu A. Familial isolated pituitary adenomas (FIPA) and the pituitary adenoma predisposition due to mutations in the aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein (AIP) gene. Endocr Rev 2013; 34 (02) 239-277
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 48 Guaraldi F, Storr HL, Ghizzoni L, Ghigo E, Savage MO. Paediatric pituitary adenomas: a decade of change. Horm Res Paediatr 2014; 81 (03) 145-155
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 49 Tichomirowa MA, Barlier A, Daly AF. , et al. High prevalence of AIP gene mutations following focused screening in young patients with sporadic pituitary macroadenomas. Eur J Endocrinol 2011; 165 (04) 509-515
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 50 Fraioli B, Ferrante L, Celli P. Pituitary adenomas with onset during puberty. Features and treatment. J Neurosurg 1983; 59 (04) 590-595
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 51 Cannavò S, Venturino M, Curtò L. , et al. Clinical presentation and outcome of pituitary adenomas in teenagers. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 58 (04) 519-527
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 52 Dissaneevate P, Warne GL. Hyperprolactinaemia and pituitary adenomas in adolescence. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 1998; 11 (04) 531-541
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 53 Fideleff HL, Boquete HR, Sequera A, Suárez M, Sobrado P, Giaccio A. Peripubertal prolactinomas: clinical presentation and long-term outcome with different therapeutic approaches. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2000; 13 (03) 261-267
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 54 Albright AL, Pollack IF, Andelson PD. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Neurosurgery. New York, NY: Thieme; 2015
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 55 Webb C, Prayson RA. Pediatric pituitary adenomas. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2008; 132 (01) 77-80
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 56 Oliveira RS, Castro Md, Antonini SR, Martinelli Jr CE, Moreira AC, Machado HR. Surgical management of pediatric Cushing's disease: an analysis of 15 consecutive cases at a specialized neurosurgical center. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 2010; 54 (01) 17-23
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 57 Styne DM, Grumbach MM, Kaplan SL, Wilson CB, Conte FA. Treatment of Cushing's disease in childhood and adolescence by transsphenoidal microadenomectomy. N Engl J Med 1984; 310 (14) 889-893
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 58 Abe T, Lüdecke DK. Transnasal surgery for prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Surg Neurol 2002; 57 (06) 369-378 , discussion 378–379
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 59 Arafah BM, Nekl KE, Gold RS, Selman WR. Dynamics of prolactin secretion in patients with hypopituitarism and pituitary macroadenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80 (12) 3507-3512
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 60 Barkan AL, Chandler WF. Giant pituitary prolactinoma with falsely low serum prolactin: the pitfall of the “high-dose hook effect”: case report. Neurosurgery 1998; 42 (04) 913-915 , discussion 915–916
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 61 Comtois R, Robert F, Hardy J. Immunoradiometric assays may miss high prolactin levels. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119 (02) 173
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 62 Fleseriu M, Lee M, Pineyro MM. , et al. Giant invasive pituitary prolactinoma with falsely low serum prolactin: the significance of ‘hook effect’. J Neurooncol 2006; 79 (01) 41-43
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 63 Frieze TW, Mong DP, Koops MK. “Hook effect” in prolactinomas: case report and review of literature. Endocr Pract 2002; 8 (04) 296-303
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 64 Chapman IM, Hartman ML, Straume M, Johnson ML, Veldhuis JD, Thorner MO. Enhanced sensitivity growth hormone (GH) chemiluminescence assay reveals lower postglucose nadir GH concentrations in men than women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78 (06) 1312-1319
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 65 Iranmanesh A, Grisso B, Veldhuis JD. Low basal and persistent pulsatile growth hormone secretion are revealed in normal and hyposomatotropic men studied with a new ultrasensitive chemiluminescence assay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78 (03) 526-535
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 66 Ribeiro-Oliveira Jr A, Barkan A. The changing face of acromegaly--advances in diagnosis and treatment. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2012; 8 (10) 605-611
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 67 Stoffel-Wagner B, Springer W, Bidlingmaier F, Klingmüller D. A comparison of different methods for diagnosing acromegaly. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1997; 46 (05) 531-537
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 68 Carmichael JD, Bonert VS, Mirocha JM, Melmed S. The utility of oral glucose tolerance testing for diagnosis and assessment of treatment outcomes in 166 patients with acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94 (02) 523-527
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 69 Katznelson L, Bogan JS, Trob JR. , et al. Biochemical assessment of Cushing's disease in patients with corticotroph macroadenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83 (05) 1619-1623
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 70 Newell-Price J, Trainer P, Besser M, Grossman A. The diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome and pseudo-Cushing's states. Endocr Rev 1998; 19 (05) 647-672
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 71 Woo YS, Isidori AM, Wat WZ. , et al. Clinical and biochemical characteristics of adrenocorticotropin-secreting macroadenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90 (08) 4963-4969
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 72 Grossman AB, Howlett TA, Perry L. , et al. CRF in the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome: a comparison with the dexamethasone suppression test. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1988; 29 (02) 167-178
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 73 Dickstein G, DeBold CR, Gaitan D. , et al. Plasma corticotropin and cortisol responses to ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), arginine vasopressin (AVP), CRH plus AVP, and CRH plus metyrapone in patients with Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81 (08) 2934-2941
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 74 Orth DN, DeBold CR, DeCherney GS. , et al. Pituitary microadenomas causing Cushing's disease respond to corticotropin-releasing factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982; 55 (05) 1017-1019
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 75 Kaltsas GA, Giannulis MG, Newell-Price JD. , et al. A critical analysis of the value of simultaneous inferior petrosal sinus sampling in Cushing's disease and the occult ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84 (02) 487-492
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 76 Oldfield EH, Doppman JL, Nieman LK. , et al. Petrosal sinus sampling with and without corticotropin-releasing hormone for the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991; 325 (13) 897-905
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 77 Gandhi CD, Meyer SA, Patel AB, Johnson DM, Post KD. Neurologic complications of inferior petrosal sinus sampling. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008; 29 (04) 760-765
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 78 Lefournier V, Gatta B, Martinie M. , et al. One transient neurological complication (sixth nerve palsy) in 166 consecutive inferior petrosal sinus samplings for the etiological diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84 (09) 3401-3402
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 79 Miller DL, Doppman JL, Peterman SB, Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Chang R. Neurologic complications of petrosal sinus sampling. Radiology 1992; 185 (01) 143-147
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 80 López J, Barceló B, Lucas T. , et al. Petrosal sinus sampling for diagnosis of Cushing's disease: evidence of false negative results. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996; 45 (02) 147-156
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 81 Tabarin A, Greselle JF, San-Galli F. , et al. Usefulness of the corticotropin-releasing hormone test during bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling for the diagnosis of Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73 (01) 53-59
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 82 Tien RD, Kucharczyk J, Bessette J, Middleton M. MR imaging of the pituitary gland in infants and children: changes in size, shape, and MR signal with growth and development. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992; 158 (05) 1151-1154
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 83 Yousem DM, Grossman RI. Neuroradiology: The Requisites. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier; 2010
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 84 Batista D, Courkoutsakis NA, Oldfield EH. , et al. Detection of adrenocorticotropin-secreting pituitary adenomas by magnetic resonance imaging in children and adolescents with cushing disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90 (09) 5134-5140
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 85 Yousem DM, Arrington JA, Zinreich SJ, Kumar AJ, Bryan RN. Pituitary adenomas: possible role of bromocriptine in intratumoral hemorrhage. Radiology 1989; 170 (1 Pt 1): 239-243
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 86 Zimmerman RA. Imaging of intrasellar, suprasellar, and parasellar tumors. Semin Roentgenol 1990; 25 (02) 174-197
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 87 Casanueva FF, Molitch ME, Schlechte JA. , et al. Guidelines of the Pituitary Society for the diagnosis and management of prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006; 65 (02) 265-273
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 88 dos Santos Nunes V, El Dib R, Boguszewski CL, Nogueira CR. Cabergoline versus bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemia: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and meta-analysis. Pituitary 2011; 14 (03) 259-265
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 89 Molitch ME, Elton RL, Blackwell RE. , et al. Bromocriptine as primary therapy for prolactin-secreting macroadenomas: results of a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 60 (04) 698-705
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 90 Webster J, Piscitelli G, Polli A, Ferrari CI, Ismail I, Scanlon MF. ; Cabergoline Comparative Study Group. A comparison of cabergoline and bromocriptine in the treatment of hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med 1994; 331 (14) 904-909
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 91 De Bellis A, Colao A, Savoia A. , et al. Effect of long-term cabergoline therapy on the immunological pattern and pituitary function of patients with idiopathic hyperprolactinaemia positive for antipituitary antibodies. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008; 69 (02) 285-291
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 92 Perry A, Graffeo CS, Copeland III WR. , et al. Delayed Cerebrospinal Fluid rhinorrhea after gamma knife radiosurgery with or without preceding transsphenoidal resection for pituitary pathology. World Neurosurg 2017; 100: 201-207
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 93 Schlechte JA, Sherman BM, Chapler FK, VanGilder J. Long term follow-up of women with surgically treated prolactin-secreting pituitary tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62 (06) 1296-1301
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 94 Molitch ME. Management of prolactinomas during pregnancy. J Reprod Med 1999; 44 (12, Suppl) 1121-1126
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 95 Molitch ME. Pregnancy and the hyperprolactinemic woman. N Engl J Med 1985; 312 (21) 1364-1370
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 96 Schlechte JA. Clinical practice. Prolactinoma. N Engl J Med 2003; 349 (21) 2035-2041
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 97 Skrabanek P, McDonald D, Meagher D. , et al. Clinical course and outcome of thirty-five pregnancies in infertile hyperprolactinemic women. Fertil Steril 1980; 33 (04) 391-395
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 98 Weiss MH. Medical and surgical management of functional pituitary tumors. Clin Neurosurg 1981; 28: 374-383
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 99 Colao A, Di Sarno A, Cappabianca P, Di Somma C, Pivonello R, Lombardi G. Withdrawal of long-term cabergoline therapy for tumoral and nontumoral hyperprolactinemia. N Engl J Med 2003; 349 (21) 2023-2033
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 100 Johnston DG, Hall K, Kendall-Taylor P, Patrick D, Watson M, Cook DB. Effect of dopamine agonist withdrawal after long-term therapy in prolactinomas. Studies with high-definition computerised tomography. Lancet 1984; 2 (8396): 187-192
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 101 Liuzzi A, Dallabonzana D, Oppizzi G. , et al. Low doses of dopamine agonists in the long-term treatment of macroprolactinomas. N Engl J Med 1985; 313 (11) 656-659
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 102 van 't Verlaat JW, Croughs RJ. Withdrawal of bromocriptine after long-term therapy for macroprolactinomas; effect on plasma prolactin and tumour size. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1991; 34 (03) 175-178
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 103 Wang C, Lam KS, Ma JT, Chan T, Liu MY, Yeung RT. Long-term treatment of hyperprolactinaemia with bromocriptine: effect of drug withdrawal. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1987; 27 (03) 363-371
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 104 Warfield A, Finkel DM, Schatz NJ, Savino PJ, Snyder PJ. Bromocriptine treatment of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas may restore pituitary function. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101 (06) 783-785
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 105 Wu ZR, Zhang Y, Cai L. , et al. Long-term clinical outcomes of invasive giant prolactinomas after a mean ten-year followup. Int J Endocrinol 2016; 2016: 8580750
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 106 Zárate A, Canales ES, Cano C, Pilonieta CJ. Follow-up of patients with prolactinomas after discontinuation of long-term therapy with bromocriptine. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1983; 104 (02) 139-142
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 107 Orrego JJ, Chandler WF, Barkan AL. Pergolide as primary therapy for macroprolactinomas. Pituitary 2000; 3 (04) 251-256
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 108 Webster J. Cabergoline and quinagolide therapy for prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000; 53 (05) 549-550
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 109 Webster J. A comparative review of the tolerability profiles of dopamine agonists in the treatment of hyperprolactinaemia and inhibition of lactation. Drug Saf 1996; 14 (04) 228-238
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 110 Amar AP, Couldwell WT, Chen JC, Weiss MH. Predictive value of serum prolactin levels measured immediately after transsphenoidal surgery. J Neurosurg 2002; 97 (02) 307-314
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 111 Tyrrell JB, Lamborn KR, Hannegan LT, Applebury CB, Wilson CB. Transsphenoidal microsurgical therapy of prolactinomas: initial outcomes and long-term results. Neurosurgery 1999; 44 (02) 254-261 , discussion 261–263
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 112 Thorner MO. Prolactinoma. West J Med 1983; 139 (05) 703-705
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 113 Vance ML, Thorner MO. Prolactinomas. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1987; 16 (03) 731-753
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 114 Bevan JS, Webster J, Burke CW, Scanlon MF. Dopamine agonists and pituitary tumor shrinkage. Endocr Rev 1992; 13 (02) 220-240
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 115 Abe T, Lüdecke DK. Effects of preoperative octreotide treatment on different subtypes of 90 GH-secreting pituitary adenomas and outcome in one surgical centre. Eur J Endocrinol 2001; 145 (02) 137-145
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 116 Fleseriu M, Hoffman AR, Katznelson L. ; AACE Neuroendocrine and Pituitary Scientific Committee. Pituitary scientific C: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Disease State clinical review: management of acromegaly patients: what is the role of pre-operative medical therapy?. Endocr Pract 2015; 21 (06) 668-673
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 117 Katznelson L, Atkinson JL, Cook DM, Ezzat SZ, Hamrahian AH, Miller KK. ; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the diagnosis and treatment of acromegaly—2011 update. Endocr Pract 2011; 17 (Suppl. 04) 1-44
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 118 Carlsen SM, Lund-Johansen M, Schreiner T. , et al; Preoperative Octreotide Treatment of Acromegaly study group. Preoperative octreotide treatment in newly diagnosed acromegalic patients with macroadenomas increases cure short-term postoperative rates: a prospective, randomized trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93 (08) 2984-2990
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 119 Losa M, Mortini P, Urbaz L, Ribotto P, Castrignanó T, Giovanelli M. Presurgical treatment with somatostatin analogs in patients with acromegaly: effects on the remission and complication rates. J Neurosurg 2006; 104 (06) 899-906
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 120 Mao ZG, Zhu YH, Tang HL. , et al. Preoperative lanreotide treatment in acromegalic patients with macroadenomas increases short-term postoperative cure rates: a prospective, randomised trial. Eur J Endocrinol 2010; 162 (04) 661-666
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 121 Laws ER, Scheithauer BW, Groover RV. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Prog Exp Tumor Res 1987; 30: 359-361
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 122 Tarapore PE, Sughrue ME, Blevins L, Auguste KI, Gupta N, Kunwar S. Microscopic endonasal transsphenoidal pituitary adenomectomy in the pediatric population. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2011; 7 (05) 501-509
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 123 Fujioka M, Young LW. The sphenoidal sinuses: radiographic patterns of normal development and abnormal findings in infants and children. Radiology 1978; 129 (01) 133
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 124 Jang YJ, Kim SC. Pneumatization of the sphenoid sinus in children evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Rhinol 2000; 14 (03) 181-185
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 125 Szolar D, Preidler K, Ranner G. , et al. Magnetic resonance assessment of age-related development of the sphenoid sinus. Br J Radiol 1994; 67 (797) 431-435
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 126 Locatelli D, Massimi L, Rigante M. , et al. Endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal surgery for sellar tumors in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2010; 74 (11) 1298-1302
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 127 Banu MA, Rathman A, Patel KS. , et al. Corridor-based endonasal endoscopic surgery for pediatric skull base pathology with detailed radioanatomic measurements. Neurosurgery 2014; 10 (Suppl. 02) 273-293 , discussion 293
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 128 Tatreau JR, Patel MR, Shah RN. , et al. Anatomical considerations for endoscopic endonasal skull base surgery in pediatric patients. Laryngoscope 2010; 120 (09) 1730-1737
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 129 Shah RN, Surowitz JB, Patel MR. , et al. Endoscopic pedicled nasoseptal flap reconstruction for pediatric skull base defects. Laryngoscope 2009; 119 (06) 1067-1075
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 130 Kanter AS, Diallo AO, Jane Jr JA. , et al. Single-center experience with pediatric Cushing's disease. J Neurosurg 2005; 103 (5, Suppl) 413-420
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 131 Berker M, Hazer DB, Yücel T. , et al. Complications of endoscopic surgery of the pituitary adenomas: analysis of 570 patients and review of the literature. Pituitary 2012; 15 (03) 288-300
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 132 Bokhari AR, Davies MA, Diamond T. Endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery: a single surgeon experience and the learning curve. Br J Neurosurg 2013; 27 (01) 44-49
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 133 Cappabianca P, Alfieri A, de Divitiis E. Endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approach to the sella: towards functional endoscopic pituitary surgery (FEPS). Minim Invasive Neurosurg 1998; 41 (02) 66-73
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 134 Charalampaki P, Ayyad A, Kockro RA, Perneczky A. Surgical complications after endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. J Clin Neurosci 2009; 16 (06) 786-789
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 135 Halvorsen H, Ramm-Pettersen J, Josefsen R. , et al. Surgical complications after transsphenoidal microscopic and endoscopic surgery for pituitary adenoma: a consecutive series of 506 procedures. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2014; 156 (03) 441-449
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 136 Kassam AB, Prevedello DM, Carrau RL. , et al. Endoscopic endonasal skull base surgery: analysis of complications in the authors' initial 800 patients. J Neurosurg 2011; 114 (06) 1544-1568
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 137 Prevedello DM, Doglietto F, Jane Jr JA, Jagannathan J, Han J, Laws Jr ER. History of endoscopic skull base surgery: its evolution and current reality. J Neurosurg 2007; 107 (01) 206-213
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 138 Yano S, Hide T, Shinojima N. Efficacy and complications of endoscopic skull base surgery for giant pituitary adenomas. World Neurosurg 2017; 99: 533-542
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 139 Bastos RV, Silva CM, Tagliarini JV. , et al. Endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal surgery in the treatment of pituitary tumors: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. Arch Endocrinol Metab 2016; 60 (05) 411-419
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 140 Cho DY, Liau WR. Comparison of endonasal endoscopic surgery and sublabial microsurgery for prolactinomas. Surg Neurol 2002; 58 (06) 371-375 , discussion 375–376
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 141 Enseñat J, Quesada JL, Aparicio J. , et al. Comparación del abordje transesfenoidal microquirúrgico frente al abordaje endonasal transesfenoidal endosócpico. Estudio prospectivo de 50 pacientes. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2009; 20 (04) 335-344 , discussion 344–345
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 142 Jain AK, Gupta AK, Pathak A, Bhansali A, Bapuraj JR. Excision of pituitary adenomas: randomized comparison of surgical modalities. Br J Neurosurg 2007; 21 (04) 328-331
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 143 Kahilogullari G, Beton S, Al-Beyati ES. , et al. Olfactory functions after transsphenoidal pituitary surgery: endoscopic versus microscopic approach. Laryngoscope 2013; 123 (09) 2112-2119
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 144 Little AS, Chapple K, Jahnke H, White WL. Comparative inpatient resource utilization for patients undergoing endoscopic or microscopic transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary lesions. J Neurosurg 2014; 121 (01) 84-90
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 145 Storr HL, Drake WM, Evanson J. , et al. Endonasal endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery: early experience and outcome in paediatric Cushing's disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2014; 80 (02) 270-276
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 146 Massimi L, Rigante M, D'Angelo L. , et al. Quality of postoperative course in children: endoscopic endonasal surgery versus sublabial microsurgery. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2011; 153 (04) 843-849
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 147 Rigante M, Massimi L, Parrilla C. , et al. Endoscopic transsphenoidal approach versus microscopic approach in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2011; 75 (09) 1132-1136
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 148 Chivukula S, Koutourousiou M, Snyderman CH, Fernandez-Miranda JC, Gardner PA, Tyler-Kabara EC. Endoscopic endonasal skull base surgery in the pediatric population. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2013; 11 (03) 227-241
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 149 Zhan R, Xu G, Wiebe TM, Li X. Surgical outcomes of the endoscopic transsphenoidal route to pituitary tumours in paediatric patients >10 years of age: 5 years of experience at a single institute. Arch Dis Child 2015; 100 (08) 774-778
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 150 Snyderman CH, Pant H, Carrau RL, Prevedello D, Gardner P, Kassam AB. What are the limits of endoscopic sinus surgery?: the expanded endonasal approach to the skull base. Keio J Med 2009; 58 (03) 152-160
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 151 AlQahtani A, Turri-Zanoni M, Dallan I, Battaglia P, Castelnuovo P. Endoscopic endonasal resection of sinonasal and skull base malignancies in children: feasibility and outcomes. Childs Nerv Syst 2012; 28 (11) 1905-1910
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 152 D'Haens J, Van Rompaey K, Stadnik T, Haentjens P, Poppe K, Velkeniers B. Fully endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for functioning pituitary adenomas: a retrospective comparison with traditional transsphenoidal microsurgery in the same institution. Surg Neurol 2009; 72 (04) 336-340
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 153 Dehdashti AR, Ganna A, Karabatsou K, Gentili F. Pure endoscopic endonasal approach for pituitary adenomas: early surgical results in 200 patients and comparison with previous microsurgical series. Neurosurgery 2008; 62 (05) 1006-1015 , discussion 1015–1017
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 154 Graffeo CS, Dietrich AR, Grobelny B. , et al. A panoramic view of the skull base: systematic review of open and endoscopic endonasal approaches to four tumors. Pituitary 2014; 17 (04) 349-356
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 155 Higgins TS, Courtemanche C, Karakla D. , et al. Analysis of transnasal endoscopic versus transseptal microscopic approach for excision of pituitary tumors. Am J Rhinol 2008; 22 (06) 649-652
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 156 O'Malley Jr BW, Grady MS, Gabel BC. , et al. Comparison of endoscopic and microscopic removal of pituitary adenomas: single-surgeon experience and the learning curve. Neurosurg Focus 2008; 25 (06) E10
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 157 Buchfelder M, Kreutzer J. Transcranial surgery for pituitary adenomas. Pituitary 2008; 11 (04) 375-384
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 158 Dolenc VV. Transcranial epidural approach to pituitary tumors extending beyond the sella. Neurosurgery 1997; 41 (03) 542-550 , discussion 551–552
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 159 Couldwell WT. Transsphenoidal and transcranial surgery for pituitary adenomas. J Neurooncol 2004; 69 (1-3): 237-256
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 160 Jane JA, Park TS, Pobereskin LH, Winn HR, Butler AB. The supraorbital approach: technical note. Neurosurgery 1982; 11 (04) 537-542
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 161 Iwai Y, Hakuba A, Katsuyama J. , et al. A case of ectopic large pituitary adenoma. No Shinkei Geka 1990; 18 (01) 71-75
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 162 Ohata K, Takami T, Goto T, Hara M. Transpetrosal look-up approach for retrochiasmatic suprasellar tumors. Skull Base 2005; 15: B-9
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 163 DeLellis RA. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of Endocrine Organs. vol 8. Lyon, France: IARC; 2004
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 164 Figarella-Branger D, Trouillas J. The new WHO classification of human pituitary tumors: comments. Acta Neuropathol 2006; 111 (01) 71-72
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 165 Saeger W, Honegger J, Theodoropoulou M. , et al. Clinical impact of the current WHO classification of pituitary adenomas. Endocr Pathol 2016; 27 (02) 104-114
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 166 Scheithauer BW, Gaffey TA, Lloyd RV. , et al. Pathobiology of pituitary adenomas and carcinomas. Neurosurgery 2006; 59 (02) 341-353 , discussion 341–353
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 167 George DH, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K. , et al. Crooke's cell adenoma of the pituitary: an aggressive variant of corticotroph adenoma. Am J Surg Pathol 2003; 27 (10) 1330-1336
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 168 Pernicone PJ, Scheithauer BW, Sebo TJ. , et al. Pituitary carcinoma: a clinicopathologic study of 15 cases. Cancer 1997; 79 (04) 804-812
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 169 Thapar K, Yamada Y, Scheithauer B, Kovacs K, Yamada S, Stefaneanu L. Assessment of mitotic activity in pituitary adenomas and carcinomas. Endocr Pathol 1996; 7 (03) 215-221
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 170 Di Ieva A, Rotondo F, Syro LV, Cusimano MD, Kovacs K. Aggressive pituitary adenomas--diagnosis and emerging treatments. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2014; 10 (07) 423-435
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 171 Zada G, Woodmansee WW, Ramkissoon S, Amadio J, Nose V, Laws Jr ER. Atypical pituitary adenomas: incidence, clinical characteristics, and implications. J Neurosurg 2011; 114 (02) 336-344
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 172 Ram Z, Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Doppman JL, Oldfield EH. Early repeat surgery for persistent Cushing's disease. J Neurosurg 1994; 80 (01) 37-45
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 173 Landolt AM, Haller D, Lomax N. , et al. Octreotide may act as a radioprotective agent in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85 (03) 1287-1289
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 174 Landolt AM, Haller D, Lomax N. , et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for recurrent surgically treated acromegaly: comparison with fractionated radiotherapy. J Neurosurg 1998; 88 (06) 1002-1008
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 175 Pollock BE, Nippoldt TB, Stafford SL, Foote RL, Abboud CF. Results of stereotactic radiosurgery in patients with hormone-producing pituitary adenomas: factors associated with endocrine normalization. J Neurosurg 2002; 97 (03) 525-530
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 176 Goffman TE, Dewan R, Arakaki R, Gorden P, Oldfield EH, Glatstein E. Persistent or recurrent acromegaly. Long-term endocrinologic efficacy and neurologic safety of postsurgical radiation therapy. Cancer 1992; 69 (01) 271-275
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 177 Pollock BE, Carpenter PC. Stereotactic radiosurgery as an alternative to fractionated radiotherapy for patients with recurrent or residual nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas. Neurosurgery 2003; 53 (05) 1086-1091 , discussion 1091–1094
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 178 Rutkowski MJ, Flanigan PM, Aghi MK. Update on the management of recurrent Cushing's disease. Neurosurg Focus 2015; 38 (02) E16
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 179 Sheehan JM, Vance ML, Sheehan JP, Ellegala DB, Laws Jr ER. Radiosurgery for Cushing's disease after failed transsphenoidal surgery. J Neurosurg 2000; 93 (05) 738-742
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 180 Sheehan JP, Kondziolka D, Flickinger J, Lunsford LD. Radiosurgery for residual or recurrent nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma. J Neurosurg 2002; 97 (5, Suppl): 408-414
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 181 Loeffler JS, Shih HA. Radiation therapy in the management of pituitary adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96 (07) 1992-2003
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 182 Sheehan JP, Xu Z, Lobo MJ. External beam radiation therapy and stereotactic radiosurgery for pituitary adenomas. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2012; 23 (04) 571-586
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 183 Thorén M, Rähn T, Hallengren B. , et al. Treatment of Cushing's disease in childhood and adolescence by stereotactic pituitary irradiation. Acta Paediatr Scand 1986; 75 (03) 388-395
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 184 Devoe DJ, Miller WL, Conte FA. , et al. Long-term outcome in children and adolescents after transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82 (10) 3196-3202
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 185 Magiakou MA, Mastorakos G, Oldfield EH, Gomez MT, Doppman JL, Cutler Jr GB. , et al. Cushing's Syndrome in Children and Adolescents–Presentation, Diagnosis, and Therapy. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 629-636
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 186 Ding D, Starke RM, Sheehan JP. Treatment paradigms for pituitary adenomas: defining the roles of radiosurgery and radiation therapy. J Neurooncol 2014; 117 (03) 445-457
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 187 Estrada J, Boronat M, Mielgo M. , et al. The long-term outcome of pituitary irradiation after unsuccessful transsphenoidal surgery in Cushing's disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 336 (03) 172-177
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 188 Jennings AS, Liddle GW, Orth DN. Results of treating childhood Cushing's disease with pituitary irradiation. N Engl J Med 1977; 297 (18) 957-962
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 189 Petit JH, Biller BM, Yock TI. , et al. Proton stereotactic radiotherapy for persistent adrenocorticotropin-producing adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93 (02) 393-399
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 190 Ronson BB, Schulte RW, Han KP, Loredo LN, Slater JM, Slater JD. Fractionated proton beam irradiation of pituitary adenomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006; 64 (02) 425-434
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 191 Graffeo CS, Perry A, Carlstrom LP. , et al. Characterizing and predicting the Nelson-Salassa syndrome. J Neurosurg 2017; 127 (06) 1277-1287
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 192 Pollock BE, Young Jr WF. Stereotactic radiosurgery for patients with ACTH-producing pituitary adenomas after prior adrenalectomy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 54 (03) 839-841
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 193 Heaney AP. Clinical review: Pituitary carcinoma: difficult diagnosis and treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96 (12) 3649-3660
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 194 Losa M, Bogazzi F, Cannavo S. , et al. Temozolomide therapy in patients with aggressive pituitary adenomas or carcinomas. J Neurooncol 2016; 126 (03) 519-525
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 195 McCormack AI, Wass JA, Grossman AB. Aggressive pituitary tumours: the role of temozolomide and the assessment of MGMT status. Eur J Clin Invest 2011; 41 (10) 1133-1148
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 196 Ortiz LD, Syro LV, Scheithauer BW. , et al. Temozolomide in aggressive pituitary adenomas and carcinomas. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2012; 67 (Suppl. 01) 119-123
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 197 Raverot G, Castinetti F, Jouanneau E. , et al. Pituitary carcinomas and aggressive pituitary tumours: merits and pitfalls of temozolomide treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76 (06) 769-775
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 198 Fukuoka H, Cooper O, Ben-Shlomo A. , et al. EGFR as a therapeutic target for human, canine, and mouse ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas. J Clin Invest 2011; 121 (12) 4712-4721
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 199 Fukuoka H, Cooper O, Mizutani J. , et al. HER2/ErbB2 receptor signaling in rat and human prolactinoma cells: strategy for targeted prolactinoma therapy. Mol Endocrinol 2011; 25 (01) 92-103
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 200 Jouanneau E, Wierinckx A, Ducray F. , et al. New targeted therapies in pituitary carcinoma resistant to temozolomide. Pituitary 2012; 15 (01) 37-43
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 201 Ortiz LD, Syro LV, Scheithauer BW. , et al. Anti-VEGF therapy in pituitary carcinoma. Pituitary 2012; 15 (03) 445-449
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 202 Katznelson L, Klibanski A. Prolactinomas. Cancer Treat Res 1997; 89: 41-55
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 203 Rasmussen C. Hyperprolactinaemia--a clinical study with special reference to long-term follow-up, treatment with dopamine agonists, and pregnancy. Ups J Med Sci 1990; 95 (01) 1-29
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 204 Rasmussen C, Bergh T, Nillius SJ, Wide L. Return of menstruation and normalization of prolactin in hyperprolactinemic women with bromocriptine-induced pregnancy. Fertil Steril 1985; 44 (01) 31-34
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 205 Gsponer J, De Tribolet N, Déruaz JP. , et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of pituitary tumors and other abnormal intrasellar masses. Retrospective analysis of 353 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1999; 78 (04) 236-269
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 206 Hoorn EJ, Zietse R. Water balance disorders after neurosurgery: the triphasic response revisited. NDT Plus 2010; 3 (01) 42-44
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 207 Das NK, Lyngdoh BT, Bhakri BK. , et al. Surgical management of pediatric Cushing's disease. Surg Neurol 2007; 67 (03) 251-257 , discussion 257
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 208 Kassam A, Thomas AJ, Snyderman C. , et al. Fully endoscopic expanded endonasal approach treating skull base lesions in pediatric patients. J Neurosurg 2007; 106 2, Suppl): 75-86
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 209 Tamasauskas A, Sinkūnas K, Draf W. , et al. Management of cerebrospinal fluid leak after surgical removal of pituitary adenomas. Medicina (Kaunas) 2008; 44 (04) 302-307
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 210 Garcia-Navarro V, Anand VK, Schwartz TH. Gasket seal closure for extended endonasal endoscopic skull base surgery: efficacy in a large case series. World Neurosurg 2013; 80 (05) 563-568
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 211 Kassam AB, Thomas A, Carrau RL. , et al. Endoscopic reconstruction of the cranial base using a pedicled nasoseptal flap. Neurosurgery 2008; 63 (01) (Suppl. 01) ONS44-ONS52 , discussion ONS52–ONS53
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 212 Richmond IL, Wilson CB. Pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. J Neurosurg 1978; 49: 163-168
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 213 Fahlbusch R, Buchfelder M, Muller OA. Transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease. J R Soc Med 1986; 79: 262-269
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 214 Lüdecke D, Herrmann H-D, Schulte F. Special problems with neurosurgical treatment of hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in children. In: Kageyama N, Takakura K, Epstein FJ, Hoffman HJ, Schut L. , eds. Intracranial Tumors in Infancy and Childhood Vol 30. New York, NY: Karger Publishers; 1987: 362-370
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 215 Haddad SF, VanGilder JC, Menezes AH. Pediatric pituitary tumors. Neurosurgery 1991; 29: 509-514
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 216 Leinung MC, Kane LA, Scheithauer BW, Carpenter PC, Laws Jr. ER, Zimmerman D. Long term follow-up of transsphenoidal surgery for the treatment of Cushing's disease in childhood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 2475-2479
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 217 Abe T, Ludecke DK, Saeger W. Clinically nonsecreting pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence. Neurosurgery 1998; 42: 744-750 ; discussion 750–741
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar