Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 36(03): 388-407
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1550157
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Occupational Asthma and Work-Exacerbated Asthma

George Friedman-Jimenez
1   Bellevue/NYU Occupational & Environmental Medicine Clinic, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York
2   Department of Medicine and Environmental Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York
3   Department of Population Health, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY
,
Denise Harrison
1   Bellevue/NYU Occupational & Environmental Medicine Clinic, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York
2   Department of Medicine and Environmental Medicine, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York
4   World Trade Center Clinical Center of Excellence, New York, New York
,
Honghong Luo
1   Bellevue/NYU Occupational & Environmental Medicine Clinic, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York
3   Department of Population Health, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
29 May 2015 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Occupational asthma (OA) and work-exacerbated asthma (WEA), collectively known as work-related asthma (WRA), have been recognized as the most prevalent work-related lung diseases in the industrialized world. OA is asthma caused by workplace conditions, and is subdivided into sensitizer-induced (allergic) OA and irritant-induced (nonallergic) OA. WEA is asthma that is made worse, but was not initially caused, by workplace conditions. Although WRA is rarely fatal, patients with WRA frequently experience excessive time lost from work, workplace-specific severe disability, loss of income, job loss, and related psychosocial and financial problems. More than 400 workplace environmental agents have been reported to cause WRA, and are classified by molecular weight and allergenic and irritant properties. Diagnosis of WRA requires confirmation of a diagnosis of asthma plus evidence that the asthma was caused or worsened by workplace conditions. Accuracy of diagnosis is important because either overdiagnosis or missed diagnosis of WRA can be problematic for the patient. Self-reported clinical symptoms alone have only fair sensitivity and specificity for OA. If possible, diagnostic assessment should also include objective evidence with functional and immunologic testing. Treatment and prevention of onset or worsening of WRA can be highly effective and typically include both optimal medical management (generally the same as for non-WRA) and, importantly, avoidance of sensitizer or irritant exposures that caused or exacerbate the asthma. In most cases of OA, prognosis is better with cessation rather than reduction of exposure, and this may require substantial changes in the workplace environment or change of job or even profession.

Keywords

occupational asthma - work-exacerbated asthma - work-related asthma - irritant-induced asthma - peak expiratory flow - nonspecific bronchial hyperresponsiveness - diagnosis - sensitivity - specificity - prevention
 

  • References

  • 1 Virchow JC, Barnes PJ. Asthma. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 33 (6) 577-578
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Malo JL, Chan-Yeung M, Bernstein DI. Asthma in the Workplace. 4th ed. Boca Raton, London, New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 2013
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Henneberger PK, Redlich CA, Callahan DB , et al; ATS Ad Hoc Committee on Work-Exacerbated Asthma. An official American Thoracic Society statement: work-exacerbated asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 184 (3) 368-378
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Chan-Yeung M ; American College of Chest Physicians. Assessment of asthma in the workplace. ACCP consensus statement. Chest 1995; 108 (4) 1084-1117
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Malo JL, Chan-Yeung M. Agents causing occupational asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009; 123 (3) 545-550
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Brooks SM, Weiss MA, Bernstein IL. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS). Persistent asthma syndrome after high level irritant exposures. Chest 1985; 88 (3) 376-384
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Alberts WM, do Pico GA. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome. Chest 1996; 109 (6) 1618-1626
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Brooks SM, Bernstein IL. Irritant-induced airway disorders. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2011; 31 (4) 747-768
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Labrecque M. Irritant-induced asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 12 (2) 140-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Brooks SM, Hammad Y, Richards I, Giovinco-Barbas J, Jenkins K. The spectrum of irritant-induced asthma: sudden and not-so-sudden onset and the role of allergy. Chest 1998; 113 (1) 42-49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Brooks SM. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome and considerations of irritant-induced Asthma. J Occup Environ Med 2013; 55 (9) 1118-1120
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Tarlo SM, Lemiere C. Occupational asthma. N Engl J Med 2014; 370 (7) 640-649
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Szram J, Cullinan P. Occupational asthma. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 33 (6) 653-665
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Quirce S, Bernstein JA. Old and new causes of occupational asthma. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2011; 31 (4) 677-698 , v
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Lemiere C, Ameille J, Boschetto P, Labrecque M, Pralong JA. Occupational asthma: new deleterious agents at the workplace. Clin Chest Med 2012; 33 (3) 519-530
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Rachiotis G, Savani R, Brant A, MacNeill SJ, Newman Taylor A, Cullinan P. Outcome of occupational asthma after cessation of exposure: a systematic review. Thorax 2007; 62 (2) 147-152
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Vandenplas O, Dressel H, Wilken D , et al. Management of occupational asthma: cessation or reduction of exposure? A systematic review of available evidence. Eur Respir J 2011; 38 (4) 804-811
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Yacoub MR, Lavoie K, Lacoste G , et al. Assessment of impairment/disability due to occupational asthma through a multidimensional approach. Eur Respir J 2007; 29 (5) 889-896
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Burge PS, Moore VC, Robertson AS. Sensitization and irritant-induced occupational asthma with latency are clinically indistinguishable. Occup Med (Lond) 2012; 62 (2) 129-133
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Malo JL, L'archevêque J, Castellanos L, Lavoie K, Ghezzo H, Maghni K. Long-term outcomes of acute irritant-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179 (10) 923-928
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Lemiere C, Bégin D, Camus M, Forget A, Boulet LP, Gérin M. Occupational risk factors associated with work-exacerbated asthma in Quebec. Occup Environ Med 2012; 69 (12) 901-907
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Henneberger PK, Mirabelli MC, Kogevinas M , et al. The occupational contribution to severe exacerbation of asthma. Eur Respir J 2010; 36 (4) 743-750
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Henneberger P, Liang X, Lemière C. A comparison of work-exacerbated asthma cases from clinical and epidemiological settings. Can Respir J 2013; 20 (3) 159-164
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Lemière C, Boulet LP, Chaboillez S , et al. Work-exacerbated asthma and occupational asthma: do they really differ?. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 131 (3) 704-710
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Larbanois A, Jamart J, Delwiche JP, Vandenplas O. Socioeconomic outcome of subjects experiencing asthma symptoms at work. Eur Respir J 2002; 19 (6) 1107-1113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Lemiere C, Forget A, Dufour MH, Boulet LP, Blais L. Characteristics and medical resource use of asthmatic subjects with and without work-related asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120 (6) 1354-1359
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Tarlo SM, Balmes J, Balkissoon R , et al. Diagnosis and management of work-related asthma: American College Of Chest Physicians Consensus Statement. Chest 2008; 134 (3, Suppl): 1S-41S
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 To T, Stanojevic S, Moores G , et al. Global asthma prevalence in adults: findings from the cross-sectional world health survey. BMC Public Health 2012; 12: 204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Chan-Yeung M, Zhan LX, Tu DH , et al. The prevalence of asthma and asthma-like symptoms among adults in rural Beijing, China. Eur Respir J 2002; 19 (5) 853-858
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Knoeller GE, Mazurek JM, Moorman JE ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Work-related asthma—38 states and District of Columbia, 2006-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 61 (20) 375-378
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Liu X. Asthma prevalence, health care use, and mortality: United States, 2005-2009. Natl Health Stat Rep 2011; (32) 1-14
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Kogevinas M, Zock JP, Jarvis D , et al. Exposure to substances in the workplace and new-onset asthma: an international prospective population-based study (ECRHS-II). Lancet 2007; 370 (9584) 336-341
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Torén K, Blanc PD. Asthma caused by occupational exposures is common - a systematic analysis of estimates of the population-attributable fraction. BMC Pulm Med 2009; 9: 7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Mazurek JM, Knoeller GE, Moorman JE, Storey E. Occupational asthma incidence: findings from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system asthma call-back survey—United States, 2006-2009. J Asthma 2013; 50 (4) 390-394
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Berger Z, Rom WN, Reibman J , et al. Prevalence of workplace exacerbation of asthma symptoms in an urban working population of asthmatics. J Occup Environ Med 2006; 48 (8) 833-839
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Bolen AR, Henneberger PK, Liang X , et al. The validation of work-related self-reported asthma exacerbation. Occup Environ Med 2007; 64 (5) 343-348
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Chiry S, Boulet LP, Lepage J , et al. Frequency of work-related respiratory symptoms in workers without asthma. Am J Ind Med 2009; 52 (6) 447-454
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Cartier A. Definition and diagnosis of occupational asthma. Eur Respir J 1994; 7 (1) 153-160
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Crapo RO, Casaburi R, Coates AL , et al. Guidelines for methacholine and exercise challenge testing-1999. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161 (1) 309-329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Gauvreau GM, Doctor J, Watson RM, Jordana M, O'Byrne PM. Effects of inhaled budesonide on allergen-induced airway responses and airway inflammation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154 (5) 1267-1271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Hur GY, Koh DH, Kim HA , et al. Prevalence of work-related symptoms and serum-specific antibodies to wheat flour in exposed workers in the bakery industry. Respir Med 2008; 102 (4) 548-555
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Lee JY, Lee YD, Bahn JW, Park HS. A case of occupational asthma and rhinitis caused by Sanyak and Korean ginseng dusts. Allergy 2006; 61 (3) 392-393
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Sastre J, Vandenplas O, Park HS. Pathogenesis of occupational asthma. Eur Respir J 2003; 22 (2) 364-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Bahn JW, Lee JY, Jang SH, Kim SH, Kim HM, Park HS. Sensitization to Empynase(pronase B) in exposed hospital personnel and identification of the Empynase allergen. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 36 (3) 352-358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Maestrelli P, Boschetto P, Fabbri LM, Mapp CE. Mechanisms of occupational asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009; 123 (3) 531-542 , quiz 543–544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Palikhe NS, Kim JH, Park HS. Biomarkers predicting isocyanate-induced asthma. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 2011; 3 (1) 21-26
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Duffy DL, Martin NG, Battistutta D, Hopper JL, Mathews JD. Genetics of asthma and hay fever in Australian twins. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 142 (6, Pt 1): 1351-1358
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Frew AJ. What can we learn about asthma from studying occupational asthma?. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003; 90 (5) (Suppl. 02) 7-10
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Kim YK, Son JW, Kim HY , et al. New occupational allergen in citrus farmers: citrus red mite (Panonychus citri). Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999; 82 (2) 223-228
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Moller DR, Gallagher JS, Bernstein DI, Wilcox TG, Burroughs HE, Bernstein IL. Detection of IgE-mediated respiratory sensitization in workers exposed to hexahydrophthalic anhydride. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985; 75 (6) 663-672
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Welinder H, Nielsen J, Rylander L, Ståhlbom B. A prospective study of the relationship between exposure and specific antibodies in workers exposed to organic acid anhydrides. Allergy 2001; 56 (6) 506-511
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Piirilä PL, Nordman H, Keskinen HM , et al. Long-term follow-up of hexamethylene diisocyanate-, diphenylmethane diisocyanate-, and toluene diisocyanate-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162 (2, Pt 1): 516-522
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Bernstein DI, Cartier A, Côté J , et al. Diisocyanate antigen-stimulated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 synthesis has greater test efficiency than specific antibodies for identification of diisocyanate asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166 (4) 445-450
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Bernstein IL, Bernstein JA, Miller M , et al. Immune responses in farm workers after exposure to Bacillus thuringiensis pesticides. Environ Health Perspect 1999; 107 (7) 575-582
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Park JW, Kim CW, Kim KS , et al. Role of skin prick test and serological measurement of specific IgE in the diagnosis of occupational asthma resulting from exposure to vinyl sulphone reactive dyes. Occup Environ Med 2001; 58 (6) 411-416
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Moffatt MF, Gut IG, Demenais F , et al; GABRIEL Consortium. A large-scale, consortium-based genomewide association study of asthma. N Engl J Med 2010; 363 (13) 1211-1221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Allen M, Heinzmann A, Noguchi E , et al. Positional cloning of a novel gene influencing asthma from chromosome 2q14. Nat Genet 2003; 35 (3) 258-263
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Laitinen T, Polvi A, Rydman P , et al. Characterization of a common susceptibility locus for asthma-related traits. Science 2004; 304 (5668) 300-304
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Foley SC, Mogas AK, Olivenstein R , et al. Increased expression of ADAM33 and ADAM8 with disease progression in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 119 (4) 863-871
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Daniels SE, Bhattacharrya S, James A , et al. A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci underlying asthma. Nature 1996; 383 (6597) 247-250
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Laitinen T, Daly MJ, Rioux JD , et al. A susceptibility locus for asthma-related traits on chromosome 7 revealed by genome-wide scan in a founder population. Nat Genet 2001; 28 (1) 87-91
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Leaves NI, Bhattacharyya S, Wiltshire S, Cookson WO. A detailed genetic map of the chromosome 7 bronchial hyper-responsiveness locus. Eur J Hum Genet 2002; 10 (3) 177-182
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Koppelman GH, Meyers DA, Howard TD , et al. Identification of PCDH1 as a novel susceptibility gene for bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 180 (10) 929-935
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Rogers AJ, Celedón JC, Lasky-Su JA, Weiss ST, Raby BA. Filaggrin mutations confer susceptibility to atopic dermatitis but not to asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007; 120 (6) 1332-1337
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Galanter J, Choudhry S, Eng C , et al. ORMDL3 gene is associated with asthma in three ethnically diverse populations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177 (11) 1194-1200
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Bisgaard H, Bønnelykke K, Sleiman PM , et al. Chromosome 17q21 gene variants are associated with asthma and exacerbations but not atopy in early childhood. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179 (3) 179-185
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Torgerson DG, Ampleford EJ, Chiu GY , et al; Mexico City Childhood Asthma Study (MCAAS); Children's Health Study (CHS) and HARBORS study; Genetics of Asthma in Latino Americans (GALA) Study, Study of Genes-Environment and Admixture in Latino Americans (GALA2) and Study of African Americans, Asthma, Genes & Environments (SAGE); Childhood Asthma Research and Education (CARE) Network; Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP); Study of Asthma Phenotypes and Pharmacogenomic Interactions by Race-Ethnicity (SAPPHIRE); Genetic Research on Asthma in African Diaspora (GRAAD) Study. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of asthma in ethnically diverse North American populations. Nat Genet 2011; 43 (9) 887-892
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Bignon JS, Aron Y, Ju LY , et al. HLA class II alleles in isocyanate-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149 (1) 71-75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Mapp CE, Beghè B, Balboni A , et al. Association between HLA genes and susceptibility to toluene diisocyanate-induced asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2000; 30 (5) 651-656
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Kim SH, Oh HB, Lee KW , et al. HLA DRB1*15-DPB1*05 haplotype: a susceptible gene marker for isocyanate-induced occupational asthma?. Allergy 2006; 61 (7) 891-894
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Taylor AN. Role of human leukocyte antigen phenotype and exposure in development of occupational asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 1 (2) 157-161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Young RP, Barker RD, Pile KD, Cookson WO, Taylor AJ. The association of HLA-DR3 with specific IgE to inhaled acid anhydrides. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151 (1) 219-221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Horne C, Quintana PJ, Keown PA, Dimich-Ward H, Chan-Yeung M. Distribution of DRB1 and DQB1 HLA class II alleles in occupational asthma due to western red cedar. Eur Respir J 2000; 15 (5) 911-914
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Xue A, Chapoval SP, Finn ES , et al. HLA-DQ8 is a predisposing molecule for detergent enzyme subtilisin BPN'-induced hypersensitivity. Clin Immunol 2005; 117 (3) 302-315
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Rihs HP, Barbalho-Krölls T, Huber H, Baur X. No evidence for the influence of HLA class II in alleles in isocyanate-induced asthma. Am J Ind Med 1997; 32 (5) 522-527
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Jeal H, Draper A, Jones M , et al. HLA associations with occupational sensitization to rat lipocalin allergens: a model for other animal allergies?. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111 (4) 795-799
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Jones MG, Nielsen J, Welch J , et al. Association of HLA-DQ5 and HLA-DR1 with sensitization to organic acid anhydrides. Clin Exp Allergy 2004; 34 (5) 812-816
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Christiani DC, Mehta AJ, Yu CL. Genetic susceptibility to occupational exposures. Occup Environ Med 2008; 65 (6) 430-436 , quiz 436, 397
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Ober C, Hoffjan S. Asthma genetics 2006: the long and winding road to gene discovery. Genes Immun 2006; 7 (2) 95-100
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Vercelli D. Discovering susceptibility genes for asthma and allergy. Nat Rev Immunol 2008; 8 (3) 169-182
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Martinez FD. Gene-environment interactions in asthma: with apologies to William of Ockham. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2007; 4 (1) 26-31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Bernstein DI, Wang N, Campo P , et al. Diisocyanate asthma and gene-environment interactions with IL4RA, CD-14, and IL-13 genes. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2006; 97 (6) 800-806
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Harada M, Obara K, Hirota T , et al. A functional polymorphism in IL-18 is associated with severity of bronchial asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 180 (11) 1048-1055
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Piirilä P, Wikman H, Luukkonen R , et al. Glutathione S-transferase genotypes and allergic responses to diisocyanate exposure. Pharmacogenetics 2001; 11 (5) 437-445
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Wikman H, Piirilä P, Rosenberg C , et al. N-Acetyltransferase genotypes as modifiers of diisocyanate exposure-associated asthma risk. Pharmacogenetics 2002; 12 (3) 227-233
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Lemière C, Malo JL, Boulet LP, Boutet M. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome induced by exposure to a mixture containing isocyanate: functional and histopathologic behaviour. Allergy 1996; 51 (4) 262-265
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Lemière C, Malo JL, Boutet M. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome due to chlorine: sequential bronchial biopsies and functional assessment. Eur Respir J 1997; 10 (1) 241-244
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Holgate ST. The airway epithelium is central to the pathogenesis of asthma. Allergol Int 2008; 57 (1) 1-10
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Cartier A, Sastre J. Clinical assessment of occupational asthma and its differential diagnosis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2011; 31 (4) 717-728 , vi
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Tarlo SM, Malo JL ; Fourth Jack Pepys Workshop on Asthma in the Workplace Participants. An official American Thoracic Society proceedings: work-related asthma and airway diseases. Presentations and discussion from the Fourth Jack Pepys Workshop on Asthma in the Workplace. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2013; 10 (4) S17-S24
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Moscato G, Pala G, Barnig C , et al; European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. EAACI consensus statement for investigation of work-related asthma in non-specialized centres. Allergy 2012; 67 (4) 491-501
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Baur X, Aasen TB, Burge PS , et al; ERS Task Force on the Management of Work-related Asthma. The management of work-related asthma guidelines: a broader perspective. Eur Respir Rev 2012; 21 (124) 125-139
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Nicholson PJ, Cullinan P, Taylor AJ, Burge PS, Boyle C. Evidence based guidelines for the prevention, identification, and management of occupational asthma. Occup Environ Med 2005; 62 (5) 290-299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Lemière C. When to suspect occupational asthma. Can Respir J 2013; 20 (6) 442-444
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 van Schayck CP, Chavannes NH. Detection of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in primary care. Eur Respir J Suppl 2003; 39: 16s-22s
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Malo JL, Ghezzo H, L'Archevêque J, Lagier F, Perrin B, Cartier A. Is the clinical history a satisfactory means of diagnosing occupational asthma?. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143 (3) 528-532
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Fletcher RH, Fletcher SW, Fletcher GS. Clinical Epidemiology: The Essentials. 5th ed. Baltimore, MD: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014
    Google Scholar
  • 98 National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program, Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Full Report, 2007
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Global Initiative for Asthma Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention 2014
    PubMed
  • 100 van Schayck CP, van Der Heijden FM, van Den Boom G, Tirimanna PR, van Herwaarden CL. Underdiagnosis of asthma: is the doctor or the patient to blame? The DIMCA project. Thorax 2000; 55 (7) 562-565
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Vugt Sv, Broekhuizen L, Zuithoff N , et al; GRACE Project Group. Airway obstruction and bronchodilator responsiveness in adults with acute cough. Ann Fam Med 2012; 10 (6) 523-529
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Nish WA, Schwietz LA. Underdiagnosis of asthma in young adults presenting for USAF basic training. Ann Allergy 1992; 69 (3) 239-242
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 LindenSmith J, Morrison D, Deveau C, Hernandez P. Overdiagnosis of asthma in the community. Can Respir J 2004; 11 (2) 111-116
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 van Huisstede A, Castro Cabezas M, van de Geijn GJ , et al. Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis of asthma in the morbidly obese. Respir Med 2013; 107 (9) 1356-1364
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Luks VP, Vandemheen KL, Aaron SD. Confirmation of asthma in an era of overdiagnosis. Eur Respir J 2010; 36 (2) 255-260
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Lucas AE, Smeenk FW, Smeele IJ, van Schayck CP. Overtreatment with inhaled corticosteroids and diagnostic problems in primary care patients, an exploratory study. Fam Pract 2008; 25 (2) 86-91
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Aaron SD, Vandemheen KL, Boulet LP , et al; Canadian Respiratory Clinical Research Consortium. Overdiagnosis of asthma in obese and nonobese adults. CMAJ 2008; 179 (11) 1121-1131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Beach J, Russell K, Blitz S , et al. A systematic review of the diagnosis of occupational asthma. Chest 2007; 131 (2) 569-578
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Jares EJ, Baena-Cagnani CE, Gómez RM. Diagnosis of occupational asthma: an update. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2012; 12 (3) 221-231
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Lemière C, D'Alpaos V, Chaboillez S , et al. Investigation of occupational asthma: sputum cell counts or exhaled nitric oxide?. Chest 2010; 137 (3) 617-622
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Sánchez-Vidaurre S, Cruz MJ, Gómez-Ollés S, Morell F, Muñoz X. Diagnostic utility of exhaled breath condensate analysis in conjunction with specific inhalation challenge in individuals with suspected work-related asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2012; 108 (3) 151-156
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Muñoz X, Velasco MI, Culebras M, Roca O, Morell F, Cruz MJ. Utility of exhaled breath condensate pH for diagnosing occupational asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2012; 159 (3) 313-320
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Ferrazzoni S, Scarpa MC, Guarnieri G, Corradi M, Mutti A, Maestrelli P. Exhaled nitric oxide and breath condensate pH in asthmatic reactions induced by isocyanates. Chest 2009; 136 (1) 155-162
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Friedman-Jiménez G, Beckett WS, Szeinuk J, Petsonk EL. Clinical evaluation, management, and prevention of work-related asthma. Am J Ind Med 2000; 37 (1) 121-141
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Gannon PF, Newton DT, Belcher J, Pantin CF, Burge PS. Development of OASYS-2: a system for the analysis of serial measurement of peak expiratory flow in workers with suspected occupational asthma. Thorax 1996; 51 (5) 484-489
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Baldwin DR, Gannon P, Bright P , et al. Interpretation of occupational peak flow records: level of agreement between expert clinicians and Oasys-2. Thorax 2002; 57 (10) 860-864
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Bright P, Newton DT, Gannon PF, Pantin CF, Burge PS. OASYS-3: improved analysis of serial peak expiratory flow in suspected occupational asthma. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2001; 56 (3) 281-288
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Moore VC, Jaakkola MS, Burge CB , et al. A new diagnostic score for occupational asthma: the area between the curves (ABC score) of peak expiratory flow on days at and away from work. Chest 2009; 135 (2) 307-314
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Burge CB, Moore VC, Pantin CF, Robertson AS, Burge PS. Diagnosis of occupational asthma from time point differences in serial PEF measurements. Thorax 2009; 64 (12) 1032-1036
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Anees W, Gannon PF, Huggins V, Pantin CF, Burge PS. Effect of peak expiratory flow data quantity on diagnostic sensitivity and specificity in occupational asthma. Eur Respir J 2004; 23 (5) 730-734
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Moore VC, Jaakkola MS, Burge CB, Pantin CF, Robertson AS, Burge PS. Do long periods off work in peak expiratory flow monitoring improve the sensitivity of occupational asthma diagnosis?. Occup Environ Med 2010; 67 (8) 562-567
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Bousquet J, Heinzerling L, Bachert C , et al; Global Allergy and Asthma European Network; Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma. Practical guide to skin prick tests in allergy to aeroallergens. Allergy 2012; 67 (1) 18-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Bernstein IL, Li JT, Bernstein DI , et al; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Allergy diagnostic testing: an updated practice parameter. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2008; 100 (3) (Suppl. 03) S1-S148
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Alvarez MJ, Estrada JL, Gozalo F, Fernandez-Rojo F, Barber D. Oilseed rape flour: another allergen causing occupational asthma among farmers. Allergy 2001; 56 (2) 185-188
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Shakeri MS, Dick FD, Ayres JG. Which agents cause reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS)? A systematic review. Occup Med (Lond) 2008; 58 (3) 205-211
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Vandenplas O, Suojalehto H, Aasen TB , et al; ERS Task Force on Specific Inhalation Challenges with Occupational Agents. Specific inhalation challenge in the diagnosis of occupational asthma: consensus statement. Eur Respir J 2014; 43 (6) 1573-1587
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Dykewicz MS. Occupational asthma: current concepts in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009; 123 (3) 519-528 , quiz 529–530
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Aasen TB, Burge PS, Henneberger PK, Schlünssen V, Baur X ; ERS Task Force on the Management of Work-related Asthma; EOM Society. Diagnostic approach in cases with suspected work-related asthma. J Occup Med Toxicol 2013; 8 (1) 17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Heederik D, Budnik L, Roberge B, Goyer N. Assessment of the workplace. In: Malo JL, Chan-Yeung M, Bernstein DI, , eds. Asthma in the Workplace, 4th ed. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2013: 85-98
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Arrandale V . PhD Dissertation: Occupational Exposures and the Co-Occurrence of Work-Related Skin and Respiratory Symptoms; University of Toronto; 2012
    PubMed
  • 131 Plog BA, Quinlan PJ. Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 5th ed. Itasca, IL: National Safety Council Press; 2002
    Google Scholar
  • 132 Lippmann M. Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their Health Effects, 3th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2009
    Google Scholar
  • 133 Perkins JL. Modern Industrial Hygiene, 1st ed. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH; 2008
    Google Scholar
  • 134 Klaassen CD. Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poison, 8th ed. McGraw-Hill Education; 2013
    Google Scholar
  • 135 NIOSH. Occupational Exposure Sampling Strategy Manual. NIOSH Publication 77–173. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 1977
    Google Scholar
  • 136 Harber P, Schenker MB, Balmes JR. Occupational and Environmental Respiratory Disease. St. Louis, MO: Mosby; 1996
    Google Scholar
  • 137 Stellman JM. ILO Encycolopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety. 4th ed. Geneva: International Labour Office; 1998
    Google Scholar
  • 138 Greenberg MI. Occupational, Industrial and Environmental Toxicology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby; 2003
    Google Scholar
  • 139 Keegel T, Saunders H, LaMontagne AD, Nixon R. Are material safety data sheets (MSDS) useful in the diagnosis and management of occupational contact dermatitis?. Contact Dermat 2007; 57 (5) 331-336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Singh K, Oates C, Plant J, Voulvoulis N. Undisclosed chemicals—implications for risk assessment: a case study from the mining industry. Environ Int 2014; 68: 1-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Welsh MS, Lamesse M, Karpinski E. The verification of hazardous ingredients disclosures in selected material safety data sheets. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2000; 15 (5) 409-420
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 OSHA. Formaldehyde (Diffusive Samplers). Sandy, UT: Methods Development Team, IHCD, OSHA Salt Lake Technical Center; 2005
    Google Scholar
  • 143 NIOSH. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM). Publication 94–113. Third supplement Publication 2003–154, 4th ed. Cincinnati, OH: DHHS (NIOSH); 1994
    Google Scholar
  • 144 Schaeffer JW, Sargent LM, Sandfort DR, Brazile WJ. A comparison of two sampling methods for the detection of airborne Methylene Bisphenyl Diisocyanate. J Occup Environ Hyg 2013; 10: 213-221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Hecht G, Héry M, Hubert G, Subra I. Simultaneous sampling of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in workplace atmospheres. Ann Occup Hyg 2004; 48 (8) 715-721
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Abdel Rahman AM, Gagné S, Helleur RJ. Simultaneous determination of two major snow crab aeroallergens in processing plants by use of isotopic dilution tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2012; 403 (3) 821-831
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Jensen PA, Lighthart B, Mohr AJ, Shaffer BT. Instrumentation used with microbial bioaerosol. In: Lighthart B, Mohr AJ, , eds. Atmospheric Microbial Aerosols: Theory and Applications. New York, NY: Chapman & Hall; 1994: 226-284
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 148 Johnson D, Thompson D, Clinkenbeard R, Redus J. Professional judgment and the interpretation of viable mold air sampling data. J Occup Environ Hyg 2008; 5 (10) 656-663
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 NYCDOHMH. Guidelines on Assessment and Remediation of Fungi in Indoor Environments. NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene; 2008
    Google Scholar
  • 150 de Groene GJ, Pal TM, Beach J , et al. Workplace interventions for treatment of occupational asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; (5) CD006308
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 151 Vandenplas O, Dressel H, Nowak D, Jamart J ; ERS Task Force on the Management of Work-related Asthma. What is the optimal management option for occupational asthma?. Eur Respir Rev 2012; 21 (124) 97-104
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 152 Heederik D, Thorne PS, Doekes G. Health-based occupational exposure limits for high molecular weight sensitizers: how long is the road we must travel?. Ann Occup Hyg 2002; 46 (5) 439-446
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar