Download PDF
Semin Neurol 2015; 35(01): 057-063
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1544239
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Clinical Approach to Posttraumatic Epilepsy

Vikram R. Rao
1   Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California
,
Karen L. Parko
1   Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, California
2   Department of Neurology, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
25 February 2015 (online)

   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common causes of acquired epilepsy, and posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) results in significant somatic and psychosocial morbidity. The risk of developing PTE relates directly to TBI severity, but the latency to first seizure can be decades after the inciting trauma. Given this “silent period,” much work has focused on identification of molecular and radiographic biomarkers for risk stratification and on development of therapies to prevent epileptogenesis. Clinical management requires vigilant neurologic surveillance and recognition of the heterogeneous endophenotypes associated with PTE. Appropriate treatment of patients who have or are at risk for seizures varies as a function of time after TBI, and the clinician's armamentarium includes an ever-expanding diversity of pharmacological and surgical options. Most recently, neuromodulation with implantable devices has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for some patients with refractory PTE. Here, we review the epidemiology, diagnostic considerations, and treatment options for PTE and develop a roadmap for providers encountering this challenging clinical entity.

Keywords

traumatic brain injury - epilepsy - posttraumatic epilepsy - seizure - neuromodulation
 

  • References

  • 1 Penfield W. Introduction (Symposium on post-traumatic epilepsy). Epilepsia 1961; 2: 109-110
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Lowenstein DH. Epilepsy after head injury: an overview. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (Suppl. 02) 4-9
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Temkin O. The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press; 1945
    Google Scholar
  • 4 Faul M, Xu L, Wald MM , et al. Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations and Deaths 2002–2006. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2010
    Google Scholar
  • 5 Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7 (8) 728-741
    Google Scholar
  • 6 Hyder AA, Wunderlich CA, Puvanachandra P, Gururaj G, Kobusingye OC. The impact of traumatic brain injuries: a global perspective. NeuroRehabilitation 2007; 22 (5) 341-353
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Rusnak M. Traumatic brain injury: giving voice to a silent epidemic. Nat Rev Neurol 2013; 9 (4) 186-187
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Langlois JA, Marr A, Mitchko J, Johnson RL. Tracking the silent epidemic and educating the public: CDC's traumatic brain injury-associated activities under the TBI Act of 1996 and the Children's Health Act of 2000. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2005; 20 (3) 196-204
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Chang BS, Lowenstein DH. Epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2003; 349 (13) 1257-1266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 England MJ, Liverman CT, Schultz AM, Strawbridge LM. Epilepsy across the spectrum: promoting health and understanding. A summary of the Institute of Medicine report. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 25 (2) 266-276
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Agrawal A, Timothy J, Pandit L, Manju M. Post-traumatic epilepsy: an overview. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2006; 108 (5) 433-439
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, Keihm J, Chabal S, Winn HR. A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med 1990; 323 (8) 497-502
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Hauser WA, Annegers JF, Kurland LT. Incidence of epilepsy and unprovoked seizures in Rochester, Minnesota: 1935-1984. Epilepsia 1993; 34 (3) 453-468
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Salazar AM, Jabbari B, Vance SC, Grafman J, Amin D, Dillon JD. Epilepsy after penetrating head injury. I. Clinical correlates: a report of the Vietnam Head Injury Study. Neurology 1985; 35 (10) 1406-1414
    Google Scholar
  • 15 Herman ST. Epilepsy after brain insult: targeting epileptogenesis. Neurology 2002; 59 (9) (Suppl. 05) S21-S26
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Zarocostas J. Proliferation of firearms is growing global health problem. BMJ 2007; 335 (7618) 470-471
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Snell FI, Halter MJ. A signature wound of war. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 2010; •••: 1-7
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Kovacs SK, Leonessa F, Ling GS. Blast TBI models, neuropathology, and implications for seizure risk. Front Neurol 2014; 5: 47
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Pugh MJ, Orman JA, Jaramillo CA , et al. The prevalence of epilepsy and association with traumatic brain injury in veterans of the Afghanistan and Iraq wars. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014;
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Wilde EA, Whiteneck GG, Bogner J , et al. Recommendations for the use of common outcome measures in traumatic brain injury research. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010; 91 (11) 1650-1660.e17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Bushnik T, Englander J, Duong T. Medical and social issues related to posttraumatic seizures in persons with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2004; 19 (4) 296-304
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Ferguson PL, Smith GM, Wannamaker BB, Thurman DJ, Pickelsimer EE, Selassie AW. A population-based study of risk of epilepsy after hospitalization for traumatic brain injury. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (5) 891-898
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Annegers JF, Coan SP. The risks of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury. Seizure 2000; 9 (7) 453-457
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Coan SP, Rocca WA. A population-based study of seizures after traumatic brain injuries. N Engl J Med 1998; 338 (1) 20-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Annegers JF, Grabow JD, Groover RV, Laws Jr ER, Elveback LR, Kurland LT. Seizures after head trauma: a population study. Neurology 1980; 30 (7 Pt 1) 683-689
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Englander J, Bushnik T, Duong TT , et al. Analyzing risk factors for late posttraumatic seizures: a prospective, multicenter investigation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84 (3) 365-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Skandsen T, Ivar Lund T, Fredriksli O, Vik A. Global outcome, productivity and epilepsy 3–8 years after severe head injury. The impact of injury severity. Clin Rehabil 2008; 22 (7) 653-662
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Pitkänen A, Immonen R. Epilepsy related to traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 2014; 11 (2) 286-296
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Wang H, Xin T, Sun X , et al. Post-traumatic seizures—a prospective, multicenter, large case study after head injury in China. Epilepsy Res 2013; 107 (3) 272-278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Langendorf FG, Pedley TA, Temkin NR. Posttraumatic Seizures. In: Engel Jr. J, Pedley TA, , eds. Epilepsy: A Comprehensive Textbook. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008: 2537-2542
    Google Scholar
  • 31 Berg AT, Shinnar S. The risk of seizure recurrence following a first unprovoked seizure: a quantitative review. Neurology 1991; 41 (7) 965-972
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Asikainen I, Kaste M, Sarna S. Early and late posttraumatic seizures in traumatic brain injury rehabilitation patients: brain injury factors causing late seizures and influence of seizures on long-term outcome. Epilepsia 1999; 40 (5) 584-589
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Temkin NR. Risk factors for posttraumatic seizures in adults. Epilepsia 2003; 44 (Suppl. 10) 18-20
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Kollevold T. Immediate and early cerebral seizures after head injuries. Part III. J Oslo City Hosp 1978; 28 (6) 77-86
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Haltiner AM, Temkin NR, Dikmen SS. Risk of seizure recurrence after the first late posttraumatic seizure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78 (8) 835-840
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Hamelin S, Pouyatos B, Khalaf-Nazzal R , et al. Long-term modifications of epileptogenesis and hippocampal rhythms after prolonged hyperthermic seizures in the mouse. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 69: 156-168
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Scheffer IE. Epilepsy genetics revolutionizes clinical practice. Neuropediatrics 2014; 45 (2) 70-74
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Davidson J, Cusimano MD, Bendena WG. Post-traumatic brain injury: genetic susceptibility to outcome. Neuroscientist 2014; ; ePub ahead of print
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Christensen J, Pedersen MG, Pedersen CB, Sidenius P, Olsen J, Vestergaard M. Long-term risk of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury in children and young adults: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 2009; 373 (9669) 1105-1110
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Hung R, Carroll LJ, Cancelliere C , et al. Systematic review of the clinical course, natural history, and prognosis for pediatric mild traumatic brain injury: results of the International Collaboration on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95 (3, Suppl): S174-S191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Raymont V, Salazar AM, Krueger F, Grafman J. “Studying injured minds” - the Vietnam head injury study and 40 years of brain injury research. Front Neurol 2011; 2: 15
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Smith BN. Prophylaxis for post-traumatic epilepsy: can your kinase do that?. Epilepsy Curr 2014; 14 (1) 38-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Pitkänen A, Kemppainen S, Ndode-Ekane XE , et al. Posttraumatic epilepsy - disease or comorbidity?. Epilepsy Behav 2014;
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Diaz-Arrastia R, Agostini MA, Madden CJ, Van Ness PC. Posttraumatic epilepsy: the endophenotypes of a human model of epileptogenesis. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (Suppl. 02) 14-20
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Frey LC. Epidemiology of posttraumatic epilepsy: a critical review. Epilepsia 2003; 44 (Suppl. 10) 11-17
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Caveness WF. Onset and cessation of fits following craniocerebral trauma. J Neurosurg 1963; 20: 570-583
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Kwan P, Sander JW. The natural history of epilepsy: an epidemiological view. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75 (10) 1376-1381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Lee ST, Lui TN. Early seizures after mild closed head injury. J Neurosurg 1992; 76 (3) 435-439
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Gupta PK, Sayed N, Ding K , et al. Subtypes of post-traumatic epilepsy: clinical, electrophysiological, and imaging features. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31 (16) 1439-1443
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Diaz-Arrastia R, Agostini MA, Frol AB , et al. Neurophysiologic and neuroradiologic features of intractable epilepsy after traumatic brain injury in adults. Arch Neurol 2000; 57 (11) 1611-1616
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Shrivastava V, Burji NP, Basumatary LJ, Das M, Goswami M, Kayal AK. Etiological profile of epilepsia partialis continua among adults in a tertiary care hospital. Neurol India 2013; 61 (2) 156-160
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Hung C, Chen JW. Treatment of post-traumatic epilepsy. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2012; 14 (4) 293-306
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Medvdovsky M, Ifergane G, Wirguin I , et al. Traumatic intracranial hemorrhage in patients with seizures: descriptive characteristics. Epilepsy Behav 2006; 8 (2) 429-433
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Cornes SB, Shih T. Evaluation of the patient with spells. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2011; 17 (5 Neurologic Consultation in the Hospital): 984-1009
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Salinsky M, Storzbach D, Goy E, Evrard C. Traumatic brain injury and psychogenic seizures in veterans. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014;
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Chen LL, Baca CB, Choe J, Chen JW, Ayad ME, Cheng EM. Posttraumatic epilepsy in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans. Mil Med 2014; 179 (5) 492-496
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Barry E, Krumholz A, Bergey GK, Chatha H, Alemayehu S, Grattan L. Nonepileptic posttraumatic seizures. Epilepsia 1998; 39 (4) 427-431
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Sahaya K, Dholakia SA, Sahota PK. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a challenging entity. J Clin Neurosci 2011; 18 (12) 1602-1607
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Aziz H, Rhee P, Pandit V , et al. Mild and moderate pediatric traumatic brain injury: replace routine repeat head computed tomography with neurologic examination. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2013; 75 (4) 550-554
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Walker WC, McDonald SD. Does neurologic examination during inpatient rehabilitation help predict global outcome after nonpenetrating traumatic brain injury?. PM R 2011; 3 (1) 6-12
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Luoto TM, Silverberg ND, Kataja A , et al. Sport concussion assessment tool 2 in a civilian trauma sample with mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31 (8) 728-738
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Okasha AS, Fayed AM, Saleh AS. The FOUR score predicts mortality, endotracheal intubation and ICU length of stay after traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care 2014; 21 (3) 496-504
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 McNett M, Amato S, Gianakis A , et al. The FOUR score and GCS as predictors of outcome after traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care 2014; 21 (1) 52-57
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Steinbaugh LA, Lindsell CJ, Shutter LA, Szaflarski JP. Initial EEG predicts outcomes in a trial of levetiracetam vs. fosphenytoin for seizure prevention. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 23 (3) 280-284
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Jennett B, Van De Sande J. EEG prediction of post-traumatic epilepsy. Epilepsia 1975; 16 (2) 251-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Prichep LS, Ghosh Dastidar S, Jacquin A , et al. Classification algorithms for the identification of structural injury in TBI using brain electrical activity. Comput Biol Med 2014; 53: 125-133
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Thatcher RW, North DM, Curtin RT , et al. An EEG severity index of traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001; 13 (1) 77-87
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Tebano MT, Cameroni M, Gallozzi G , et al. EEG spectral analysis after minor head injury in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1988; 70 (2) 185-189
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Vespa PM, McArthur DL, Xu Y , et al. Nonconvulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury are associated with hippocampal atrophy. Neurology 2010; 75 (9) 792-798
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Arndt DH, Lerner JT, Matsumoto JH , et al. Subclinical early posttraumatic seizures detected by continuous EEG monitoring in a consecutive pediatric cohort. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (10) 1780-1788
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Maganti RK, Rutecki P. EEG and epilepsy monitoring. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2013; 19 (3 Epilepsy): 598-622
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Vespa PM, Boscardin WJ, Hovda DA , et al. Early and persistent impaired percent alpha variability on continuous electroencephalography monitoring as predictive of poor outcome after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2002; 97 (1) 84-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Kou Z, Wu Z, Tong KA , et al. The role of advanced MR imaging findings as biomarkers of traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2010; 25 (4) 267-282
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Hunter JV, Wilde EA, Tong KA, Holshouser BA. Emerging imaging tools for use with traumatic brain injury research. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29 (4) 654-671
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Fox WC, Park MS, Belverud S, Klugh A, Rivet D, Tomlin JM. Contemporary imaging of mild TBI: the journey toward diffusion tensor imaging to assess neuronal damage. Neurol Res 2013; 35 (3) 223-232
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Immonen R, Kharatishvili I, Gröhn O, Pitkänen A. MRI biomarkers for post-traumatic epileptogenesis. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30 (14) 1305-1309
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Lewine JD, Davis JT, Bigler ED , et al. Objective documentation of traumatic brain injury subsequent to mild head trauma: multimodal brain imaging with MEG, SPECT, and MRI. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2007; 22 (3) 141-155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Raji CA, Tarzwell R, Pavel D , et al. Clinical utility of SPECT neuroimaging in the diagnosis and treatment of traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 2014; 9 (3) e91088
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Selwyn R, Hockenbury N, Jaiswal S, Mathur S, Armstrong RC, Byrnes KR. Mild traumatic brain injury results in depressed cerebral glucose uptake: an (18)FDG PET study. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30 (23) 1943-1953
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Hong YT, Veenith T, Dewar D , et al. Amyloid imaging with carbon 11-labeled Pittsburgh compound B for traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurol 2014; 71 (1) 23-31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Storti SF, Formaggio E, Franchini E , et al. A multimodal imaging approach to the evaluation of post-traumatic epilepsy. MAGMA 2012; 25 (5) 345-360
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Jensen RL, Stone JL. Benjamin Winslow Dudley and early American trephination for posttraumatic epilepsy. Neurosurgery 1997; 41 (1) 263-268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Hernandez TD, Naritoku DK. Seizures, epilepsy, and functional recovery after traumatic brain injury: a reappraisal. Neurology 1997; 48 (4) 803-806
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 LaFrance Jr WC, Baird GL, Barry JJ , et al; NES Treatment Trial (NEST-T) Consortium. Multicenter pilot treatment trial for psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2014; 71 (9) 997-1005
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 McCrory PR, Berkovic SF. Video analysis of acute motor and convulsive manifestations in sport-related concussion. Neurology 2000; 54 (7) 1488-1491
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 McCrory PR, Bladin PF, Berkovic SF. Retrospective study of concussive convulsions in elite Australian rules and rugby league footballers: phenomenology, aetiology, and outcome. BMJ 1997; 314 (7075) 171-174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Perron AD, Brady WJ, Huff JS. Concussive convulsions: emergency department assessment and management of a frequently misunderstood entity. Acad Emerg Med 2001; 8 (3) 296-298
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Bratton SL, Chestnut RM, Ghajar J , et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; American Association of Neurological Surgeons; Congress of Neurological Surgeons; Joint Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care, AANS/CNS. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury. XIII. Antiseizure prophylaxis. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24 (Suppl. 01) S83-S86
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Chang BS, Lowenstein DH ; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: antiepileptic drug prophylaxis in severe traumatic brain injury: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2003; 60 (1) 10-16
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Szaflarski JP, Nazzal Y, Dreer LE. Post-traumatic epilepsy: current and emerging treatment options. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2014; 10: 1469-1477
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Kruer RM, Harris LH, Goodwin H , et al. Changing trends in the use of seizure prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury: a shift from phenytoin to levetiracetam. J Crit Care 2013; 28 (5) 883.e9-883.e13
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Szaflarski JP, Sangha KS, Lindsell CJ, Shutter LA. Prospective, randomized, single-blinded comparative trial of intravenous levetiracetam versus phenytoin for seizure prophylaxis. Neurocrit Care 2010; 12 (2) 165-172
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Torbic H, Forni AA, Anger KE, Degrado JR, Greenwood BC. Use of antiepileptics for seizure prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2013; 70 (9) 759-766
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Temkin NR. Preventing and treating posttraumatic seizures: the human experience. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (Suppl. 02) 10-13
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Burneo JG, Sirven JI, Kiesel LW , et al. Managing common complex symptomatic epilepsies: tumors and trauma: American Epilepsy Society - 2012 annual course summary. Epilepsy Curr 2013; 13 (5) 232-235
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Glauser T, Ben-Menachem E, Bourgeois B , et al; ILAE Subcommission on AED Guidelines. Updated ILAE evidence review of antiepileptic drug efficacy and effectiveness as initial monotherapy for epileptic seizures and syndromes. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (3) 551-563
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Fountain NB. Choosing among antiepileptic drugs. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2010; 16 (3 Epilepsy): 121-135
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Camfield P, Camfield C. When is it safe to discontinue AED treatment?. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl. 09) 25-28
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Löscher W, Klitgaard H, Twyman RE, Schmidt D. New avenues for anti-epileptic drug discovery and development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2013; 12 (10) 757-776
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Brodie MJ. Road to refractory epilepsy: the Glasgow story. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (Suppl. 02) 5-8
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2000; 342 (5) 314-319
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M ; Effectiveness and Efficiency of Surgery for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Study Group. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345 (5) 311-318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Engel Jr J, McDermott MP, Wiebe S , et al; Early Randomized Surgical Epilepsy Trial (ERSET) Study Group. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307 (9) 922-930
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Benbadis SR, Tatum WO, Vale FL. When drugs don't work: an algorithmic approach to medically intractable epilepsy. Neurology 2000; 55 (12) 1780-1784
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Englot DJ, Ouyang D, Garcia PA, Barbaro NM, Chang EF. Epilepsy surgery trends in the United States, 1990-2008. Neurology 2012; 78 (16) 1200-1206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Hartzfeld P, Elisevich K, Pace M, Smith B, Gutierrez JA. Characteristics and surgical outcomes for medial temporal post-traumatic epilepsy. Br J Neurosurg 2008; 22 (2) 224-230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Elliott RE, Bollo RJ, Berliner JL , et al. Anterior temporal lobectomy with amygdalohippocampectomy for mesial temporal sclerosis: predictors of long-term seizure control. J Neurosurg 2013; 119 (2) 261-272
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Spencer S, Huh L. Outcomes of epilepsy surgery in adults and children. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7 (6) 525-537
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Marks DA, Kim J, Spencer DD, Spencer SS. Seizure localization and pathology following head injury in patients with uncontrolled epilepsy. Neurology 1995; 45 (11) 2051-2057
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Hakimian S, Kershenovich A, Miller JW , et al. Long-term outcome of extratemporal resection in posttraumatic epilepsy. Neurosurg Focus 2012; 32 (3) E10
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Brigo F, Cicero R, Fiaschi A, Bongiovanni LG. The breach rhythm. Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 122 (11) 2116-2120
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Morris III GL, Gloss D, Buchhalter J, Mack KJ, Nickels K, Harden C. Evidence-based guideline update: vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2013; 81 (16) 1453-1459
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Vale FL, Ahmadian A, Youssef AS, Tatum WO, Benbadis SR. Long-term outcome of vagus nerve stimulation therapy after failed epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2011; 20 (3) 244-248
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wang DD, Hassnain KH, Gordon CM, Chang EF. Efficacy of vagus nerve stimulation in posttraumatic versus nontraumatic epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2012; 117 (5) 970-977
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Ben-Menachem E, Krauss GL. Epilepsy: responsive neurostimulation-modulating the epileptic brain. Nat Rev Neurol 2014; 10 (5) 247-248
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Morrell MJ ; RNS System in Epilepsy Study Group. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable partial epilepsy. Neurology 2011; 77 (13) 1295-1304
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD , et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia 2014; 55 (3) 432-441
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T , et al; SANTE Study Group. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (5) 899-908
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Fisher RS, Velasco AL. Electrical brain stimulation for epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol 2014; 10 (5) 261-270
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 So NK, Cole AJ, Tandon N, Slater JD, Smith MC. Neurostimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: the skeptical view. Neurology 2014; 83 (9) 847-849
    PubMedGoogle Scholar