RSS-Feed abonnieren
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1271677
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York
Effects and Mechanisms of Strength Training in Children
Publikationsverlauf
accepted after revision December 21, 2010
Publikationsdatum:
04. März 2011 (online)
![](https://www.thieme-connect.de/media/sportsmed/201105/lookinside/thumbnails/10.1055-s-0031-1271677-1.jpg)
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that strength training can be organized in children in a safe and effective way. However, there is limited data regarding its impact on muscle hypertrophy. This study investigated the effects of a high-intensity strength training (HIS) on knee extensor/flexor strength, countermovement (CMJ) jumping height, postural control, soft lean mass and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of the dominant leg in prepubertal children. Thirty-two children participated in this study and were assigned to an intervention (INT; n=17) or a control class (n=15). The INT participated in 10 weeks of weight-machine based HIS integrated in physical education. Pre/post tests included the measurements of peak torque of the knee extensors/flexors at 60 and 180°/s, CMJ jumping height, postural sway, soft lean mass of the leg by bioelectrical impedance analysis, and CSA (m. quadriceps) by magnetic resonance imaging. HIS resulted in significant increases in knee extensor/flexor peak torque (60°/s and 180°/s). HIS did not produce significant changes in CMJ jumping height, postural sway, soft lean mass, and CSA. Although HIS was effective at increasing peak torque of the knee extensors/flexors in children, it was unable to affect muscle size. It appears that neural factors rather than muscle hypertrophy account for the observed strength gains in children.
Key words
resistance training - weight training - youth - muscle mass - peak torque - jumping height
References
- 1 Behm DG, Faigenbaum AD, Falk B, Klentrou P. Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology position paper: resistance training in children and adolescents. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008; 33 547-561
- 2 Benson AC, Torode ME, Fiatarone Singh MA. The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Obes. 2008; 32 1016-1027
- 3 Cohen J. (ed) Statistical Power for the Behavioral Sciences.. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1988
- 4 Coren S. The lateral preference inventory for measurement of handedness, footedness, eyedness, and earedness: Norms for young adults. Bull Psych Soc. 1993; 31 1-3
- 5 Eiholzer U, Meinhardt U, Petro R, Witassek F, Gutzwiller F, Gasser T. High-intensity training increases spontaneous physical activity in children: a randomized controlled study. J Pediatr. 2010; 156 242-246
- 6 Faigenbaum AD. Youth resistance training. Res Digest. 2003; 3 1-8
- 7 Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blimkie CJ, Jeffreys I, Micheli LJ, Nitka M, Rowland TW. Youth resistance training: updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. J Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23 60-79
- 8 Faigenbaum AD, Milliken L, Westcott WL. Maximal strength testing in healthy children. J Strength Cond Res. 2003; 17 162-166
- 9 Faigenbaum AD, Myer GD. Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. Br J Sports Med. 2010; 44 56-63
- 10 Faigenbaum AD, Zaichkowsky L, Westcott WL, Micheli LJ, Fehlandt AF. The effects of a twice per week strength training program on children. Ped Exerc Sci. 1993; 5 339-346
- 11 Falk B, Mor G. The effects of resistance and martial arts training in 6- to 8-year-old boys. Ped Exerc Sci. 1996; 8 48-56
- 12 Falk B, Tenenbaum G. The effectiveness of resistance training in children. A meta-analysis. Sports Med. 1996; 22 176-186
- 13 Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang AG, Buchner A. G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav Res Methods. 2007; 39 175-191
- 14 Fukunaga T, Funato K, Ikegawa S. The effects of resistance training on muscle area and strength in prepubescent age. Ann Physiol Anthropol. 1992; 11 357-364
- 15 Granacher U, Gollhofer A, Kriemler S. Effects of balance training on postural sway, leg extensor strength and jumping height in adolescents. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2010; 81 245-251
- 16 Granacher U, Muehlbauer T, Doerflinger B, Strohmeier R, Gollhofer A. Promoting strength and balance in adolescents during physical education: effects of a short-term resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2010; Epub ahead of print
- 17 Harriss DJ, Atkinson G. International Journal of Sports Medicine – Ethical Standards in Sport and Exercise Science Research. Int J Sports Med. 2009; 30 701-702
- 18 Kambas A, Antoniou P, Xanthi G, Heikenfeld R, Taxildaris K, Godolias G. Accident prevention through development of coordination in kindergarten children. Deut Z Sportmed. 2004; 55 44-47
- 19 Kapteyn TS, Bles W, Njiokiktjien CJ, Kodde L, Massen CH, Mol JM. Standardization in platform stabilometry being a part of posturography. Agressologie. 1983; 24 321-326
- 20 Kibele A, Behm DG. Seven weeks of instability and traditional resistance training effects on strength, balance and functional performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23 2443-2450
- 21 Kilding AE, Tunstall H, Kuzmic D. Suitability of FIFA's “The 11” training programme for young football players – impact on physical performance. J Sports Sci Med. 2008; 7 320-326
- 22 Kriemler S, Puder J, Zahner L, Roth R, Braun-Fahrlander C, Bedogni G. Cross-validation of bioelectrical impedance analysis for the assessment of body composition in a representative sample of 6- to 13-year-old children. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008; 63 619-626
- 23 Linthorne NP. Analysis of standing vertical jumps using a force platform. Am J Phys. 2001; 69 1198-1204
- 24 Malina RM. Weight training in youth-growth, maturation, and safety: an evidence-based review. Clin J Sport Med. 2006; 16 478-487
- 25 Mandelbaum BR, Silvers HJ, Watanabe DS, Knarr JF, Thomas SD, Griffin LY, Kirkendall DT, Garrett Jr W. Effectiveness of a neuromuscular and proprioceptive training program in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female athletes: 2-year follow-up. Am J Sports Med. 2005; 33 1003-1010
- 26 Matton L, Duvigneaud N, Wijndaele K, Philippaerts R, Duquet W, Beunen G, Claessens AL, Thomis M, Lefevre J. Secular trends in anthropometric characteristics, physical fitness, physical activity, and biological maturation in Flemish adolescents between 1969 and 2005. Am J Hum Biol. 2007; 19 345-357
- 27 McGuigan MR, Tatasciore M, Newton RU, Pettigrew S. Eight weeks of resistance training can significantly alter body composition in children who are overweight or obese. J Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23 80-85
- 28 McNee AE, Gough M, Morrissey MC, Shortland AP. Increases in muscle volume after plantarflexor strength training in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2009; 51 429-435
- 29 Mersch F, Stoboy H. Strength training and muscle hypertrophy in children. In: Oseid S, Carlsen K (eds). Children and Exercise XIII Human Kinetics, Champaign; 1989: 165-182
- 30 Myer GD, Quatman CE, Khoury J, Wall EJ, Hewett TE. Youth versus adult “weightlifting” injuries presenting to United States emergency rooms: accidental versus nonaccidental injury mechanisms. J Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23 2054-2060
- 31 Naylor PJ, McKay HA. Prevention in the first place: schools a setting for action on physical inactivity. Br J Sports Med. 2009; 43 10-13
- 32 Ozmun JC, Mikesky AE, Surburg PR. Neuromuscular adaptations following prepubescent strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994; 26 510-514
- 33 Payne VG, Morrow Jr JR, Johnson L, Dalton SN. Resistance training in children and youth: a meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1997; 68 80-88
- 34 Pfeiffer R, Francis R. Effects of strength training on muscle development in prepubescent, pubescent and postpubescent boys. Phys Sports Med. 1986; 14 134-143
- 35 Ramsay JA, Blimkie CJ, Smith K, Garner S, MacDougall JD, Sale DG. Strength training effects in prepubescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990; 22 605-614
- 36 Ryushi T, Kumagai K, Hayase H, Abe T, Shibuya K, Ono A. Effect of resistive knee extension training on postural control measures in middle aged and elderly persons. J Physiol Anthropol Appl Hum Sci. 2000; 19 143-149
- 37 Sale DG. Neural adaptation to strength training. In: Komi PV (ed.)Strength and Power in Sport Oxford: Blackwell Publishing; 2003: 281-314
- 38 Starker A, Lampert T, Worth A, Oberger J, Kahl H, Bos K. Motor Fitness. Results of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS). Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 2007; 50 775-783
- 39 Vrijens J. Muscle strength development in the pre- and post- pubescent age. Med Sport. 1978; 11 152-158
- 40 Weltman A, Janney C, Rians CB, Strand K, Berg B, Tippitt S, Wise J, Cahill BR, Katch FI. The effects of hydraulic resistance strength training in pre-pubertal males. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986; 18 629-638
- 41 Williams HG, Pfeiffer KA, O’Neill JR, Dowda M, McIver KL, Brown WH, Pate RR. Motor skill performance and physical activity in preschool children. Obesity. 2008; 16 1421-1426
Correspondence
Prof. Urs GranacherPhD
Institute of Sport Science
Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena
Seidelstraße 20
07749 Jena
Germany
Telefon: +49/3641/945 670
Fax: +49/3641/945 602
eMail: urs.granacher@uni-jena.de