Therapeutic Perspectives on Chia Seed and Its Oil: A Review

Abstract

The attraction of novel foods proceeds alongside epidemic cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, and related risk factors. Dieticians have identified chia (Salvia hispanica) as a product with a catalog of potential health benefits relating to these detriments. Chia is currently consumed not only as seeds, but also as oil, which brings about similar effects. Chia seeds and chia seed oil are used mainly as a food commodity and the oil is also used popularly as a dietary ingredient used in various dietary supplements available in the U. S. market. Chia seed is rich in α-linolenic acid, the biological precursor to eicosapentaenoic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. Because the body cannot synthesize α-linolenic acid, chia has a newfound and instrumental role in diet. However, the inconclusive nature of the scientific communityʼs understanding of its safety warrants further research and appropriate testing. The focus of this work is to summarize dietary health benefits of S. hispanica seed and oil to acknowledge concerns of adverse events from its ingestion, to assess current research in the field, and to highlight the importance of quality compendial standards to support safe use. To achieve this end, a large-scale literature search was partaken on the two well-known databases, PubMed and SciFinder. Hundreds of articles detailing such benefits as decreased blood glucose, decreased waist circumference and weight in overweight adults, and improvements in pruritic skin and endurance in distance runners have been recorded. These benefits must be considered within the appropriate circumstances.

Key words

chia seed - chia seed oil - Salvia hispanica - biological activity - α-linolenic acid - Lamiaceae

• References

• 1 Ali NM, Yeap SK, Ho WY, Beh BK, Tan SW, Tan SG. The promising future of chia, Salvia hispanica L. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012: 171956
• 2 United States Pharmacopeal Convention 2017. USP40–NF35 Supplement: No. 2 Page 8889. Available at http://www.uspnf.com/official-text Accessed December 1, 2017
• 3 Kintzios SE. Sage: The Genus Salvia. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2000: 9
• 4 Health Canada. Salvia hispanica. Available at http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/ingredReq.do?id=6672&lang=eng Accessed September 18, 2017
• 5 Application for the authorization of chia seed from Salvia hispanica L. for consumption as a food and as an ingredient in additional food groups. Available at https://acnfp.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/mnt/drupal_data/sources/files/multimedia/pdfs/applicdosschiacompany.pdf Accessed November 5, 2016
• 6 Uribe JAR, Perez JIN, Kauil HC, Rubio GR, Alcocer CG. Extraction of oil from chia seeds with supercritical CO2. J Supercrit Fluids 2011; 56: 174-178
• 7 Ullah R, Nadeem M, Khalique A, Imran M, Mehmood S, Javid A, Hussain J. Nutritional and therapeutic perspectives of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.): a review. J Food Sci Technol 2016; 53: 1750-1758
• 8 US Department of Agriculture. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Available at https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/ Accessed September 18, 2017
• 9 Imran M, Nadeem M, Manzoor MF, Javed A, Ali Z, Akhtar MN, Ali M, Hussain Y. Fatty acids characterization, oxidative perspectives and consumer acceptability of oil extracted from pre-treated chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. Lipids Health Dis 2016; 15: 162
• 10 Connor WE. Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71: 171-175
• 11 da Silva BP, Anunciaciao PC, da Silva Matyelka J, Della Lucia CM, Martino HSD, Pinheiro-SantʼAna HM. Chemical composition of Brazilian chia seeds grown in different places. Food Chem 2016; 221: 1709-1716
• 12 Espada CE, Berra MA, Martinez MJ, Eynard AR, Pasqualini ME. Effect of Chia oil (Salvia hispanica) rich in ω-3 fatty acids on the eicosanoid release, apoptosis and T-lymphocyte tumor infiltration in a murine mammary gland adenocarcinoma. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2007; 77: 21-28
• 13 Rosas-Ramirez DG, Fragoso-Serrano M, Escandon-Rivera S, Vargas-Ramirez AL, Reyes-Grajeda JP, Soriano-Garcia M. Resistance-modifying activity in vinblastine-resistant human breast cancer cells by oligosaccharides obtained from mucilage of chia seeds. Phytother Res 2017; 31: 906-914
• 14 Fernandez I, Vidueiros SM, Ayerza R, Coates W, Pallaro A. Impact of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) on the immune system: preliminary study. Proc Nutr Soc 2008; 67: E12
• 15 Rahman U, Nadeem M, Imran M. Omega-3 fatty acids and oxidative stability of ice cream supplemented with olein fraction of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil. Lipids Health Dis 2017; 16: 34
• 16 Segura-Campos MR, Salazar-Vega IM, Chel-Guerrero LA, Betancur-Ancona DA. Biological potential of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) protein hydrolysates and their incorporation into functional foods. Food Sci Technol 2013; 50: 723-731
• 17 Segura-Campos MR, Gonzalez FP, Guerrero LC, Ancona DB. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides of chia (Salvia hispanica) produced by enzymatic hydrolysis. Int J Food Sci 2013; 2013: 158482
• 18 Salazar-Vega IM, Segura-Campos MR, Chel-Guerrero LA, Betancur-Ancona DA. Antihypertensive and antioxidant Effects of functional Foods containing Chia (Salvia hispanica) Protein Hydrolysates. In: Valdez B. ed. Scientific, Health and social Aspects of the Food Industry. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2012: 381-398
• 19 Orona-Tamayo D, Valverde ME, Nieto-Rendon B, Paredes-Lopez O. Inhibitory activity of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) protein fractions against angiotensin I-converting enzyme and antioxidant capacity. Food Sci Technol 2015; 64: 236-242
• 20 Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Waanders J, Ward L, Brown L. Lipid redistribution by α-linolenic acid-rich chia seed inhibits and induces cardiac and hepatic protection in diet-induced obese rats. J Nutr Biochem 2012; 24: 153-162
• 21 Marineli R, Moura C, Moraes E, Lenquiste S, Lollo PC, Morato P, Amaya-Farfan J, Marostica jr. MR. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) enhances HSP, PGC-1α expressions and improves glucose tolerance in diet-induced obese rats. Nutrition 2015; 51: 740-748
• 22 Ferreira MR, Alvarez SM, Illesca M, Giménez MS, Lombardo YB. Dietary Salba (Salvia hispanica L.) ameliorates the adipose tissue dysfunction of dyslipemic insulin-resistant rats through mechanisms involving oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ . Eur J Nutr 2018; 57: 83-94
• 23 Flachs P, Rossmeisl M, Bryhn M, Kopecky J. Cellular and molecular effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on adipose tissue biology and metabolism. Clin Sci (Lond) 2009; 116: 1-16
• 24 Ayerza jr. R, Coates W. Effect of dietary α-linolenic fatty acid derived from chia when fed as ground seed, whole seed and oil on lipid content and fatty acid composition of rat plasma. Ann Nutr Metab 2007; 51: 27-34
• 25 Da Silva BP, Dias DM, de Castro Moreira ME, Toledo RCL, da Matta SLP, Lucia CMD, Martino HSD, Pinheiro-SantʼAna HM. Chia seed shows good protein quality, hypoglycemic effect and improves the lipid profile and liver and intestinal morphology of wistar rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2016; 71: 225-230
• 26 Chicco AG, DʼAlessandro ME, Hein GJ, Oliva ME, Lombardo YB. Dietary chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) rich in alpha-linolenic acid improves adiposity and normalises hypertriacylglycerolaemia and insulin resistance in dyslipaemic rats. Br J Nutr 2008; 101: 41-50
• 27 Valenzuela R, Barrera C, Ayala JM, Sanhueza J, Valenzuela A. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid allow a higher accretion of n-3 LCPUFA in the plasma, liver and adipose tissue of the rat. Grasas Aceites 2014; 65: 26-28
• 28 Valenzuela RB, Barrera CR, Gonzalez-Astorgo M, Sanhueza JC, Valenzuela AB. Alpha linolenic acid (ALA) from Rosa canina, sacha inchi and chia oils may increase ALA accretion and its conversion into n-3 LCPUFA in diverse tissues of the rat. Food Funct 2014; 5: 1564
• 29 Valenzuela R, Rincón-Cervera MÁ, Hernandez-Rodas MC, Barrera C, Espinosa A, Marambio M, Valenzuela A. Vegetable oils rich in alpha linolenic acid increment hepatic n-3 LCPUFA, modulating the fatty acid metabolism and antioxidant response in rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2016; 111: 25-35
• 30 Domenichiello AF, Chen CT, Trepanier MO, Stavro PM, Bazinet RP. Whole body synthesis rates of DHA from α-linolenic acid are greater than brain DHA accretion and uptake rates in adult rats. J Lipid Res 2014; 55: 62-74
• 31 Marineli R, Lenquiste SA, Moraes EA, Marostica jr. MR. M. Antioxidant potential of dietary chia seed and oil in diet-induced obese rats. Food Res Int 2015; 76: 666-674
• 32 Fortino MA, Oliva ME, Rodriguez S, Lombardo YB, Chicco A. Could post-weaning dietary chia seed mitigate the development of dyslipidemia, liver steatosis and altered glucose homeostasis in offspring exposed to a sucrose-rich diet from utero to adulthood?. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2017; 116: 19-26
• 33 de Souza Ferreira C, de Sousa Fomes LdeF, da Silva GES, Rosa G. Effect of chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) consumption on cardiovascular risk factors in humans: a systematic review. Nutr Hosp 2015; 32: 1909-1918
• 34 Creus A, Ferreira MR, Oliva ME, Lombardo YB. Mechanisms involved in the improvement of lipotoxicity and impaired lipid metabolism by dietary α-linolenic acid rich Salvia hispanica L. (Salba) seed in the heart of dyslipemic insulin-resistant rats. J Clin Med 2016; 5: E18
• 35 Lee AS, Jovanovski E, Jenkins AL, Desouza R, Vuksan V. Effect of whole and ground Salba Seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) on postprandial Glycemia in healthy Volunteers: a randomized controlled, dose-response Trial [Thesis]. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto; 2009
• 36 Vuksan V, Jenkins AL, Dias AG, Lee AS, Jovanovski E, Rogovik AL, Hanna A. Reduction in postprandial glucose excursion and prolongation of satiety: possible explanation of the long-term effects of whole grain Salba (Salvia hispanica L.). Eur J Clin Nutr 2010; 64: 436-438
• 37 Vuksan V, Choleva L, Jovanovski E, Jenkins AL, Au-Yeung F, Dias AG, Ho HVT, Zurbau A, Duvnjak L. Comparison of flax (Linum usitatissimum) and Salba-chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds on postprandial glycemia and satiety in healthy individuals: a randomized, controlled, crossover study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017; 71: 234-238
• 38 Guevara-Cruz M, Tovar AR, Aguilar-Salinas CA, Medina-Vera I, Gil-Zenteno L, Hernandez-Viveros I, Lopez-Romero P, Ordaz-Nava G, Canizales-Quinteros S, Pineda LEG, Torres N. A dietary pattern including nopal, chia seed, soy protein, and oat reduces serum triglycerides and glucose intolerance in patients with metabolic syndrome. J Nutr 2012; 142: 64-69
• 39 Coates W, Ayerza R. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed as an n-3 fatty acid source for finishing pigs: effects on fatty acid composition and fat stability of the meat and internal fat, growth performance, and meat sensory characteristics. J Anim Sci 2009; 87: 3798-3804
• 40 Vuksan V, Jenkins AL, Brissette C, Choleva L, Jovanovski E, Gibbs AL, Bazinet RP, Au-Yeung F, Zurbau A, Ho HVT, Duvnjak L, Sievenpiper JL, Josse RG, Hanna A. Salba-chia (Salvia hispanica L.) in the treatment of overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2017; 27: 138-146
• 41 Nieman DC, Cayea EJ, Austin MD, Henson DA, McAnulty SR, Jin F. Chia seed does not promote weight loss or alter disease risk factors in overweight adults. Nutr Res 2009; 26: 411-414
• 42 Jin F, Nieman DC, Sha W, Xie G, Qiu Y, Jia W. Supplementation of milled chia seeds increases plasma ala and epa in postmenopausal women. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2012; 76: 105-110
• 43 Diwakar G, Rana J, Saito L, Vredeveld D, Zemaitis D, Scholten J. Inhibitory effect of a novel combination of Salvia hispanica (chia) seed and Punica granatum (pomegranate) fruit extracts on melanin production. Fitoterapia 2014; 97: 164-171
• 44 Park BD, Jung SG, Park HJ. Skin external composition containing chia seed oil. Korea Patent 2010005799, 2010
• 45 Jeong SK, Park HJ, Park BD, Kim IH. Effectiveness of topical chia seed oil on pruritus of end-stage renal disease (esrd) patients and healthy volunteers. Ann Dermatol 2010; 22: 143-148
• 46 Nieman DC, Gillitt ND, Meaney MP, Dew DA. No positive influence of ingesting chia seed oil on human running performance. Nutrients 2015; 7: 3666-3676
• 47 Illian TG, Casey JC, Bishop PA. Omega 3 chia seed loading as a means of carbohydrate loading. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25: 61-65
• 48 Valenzuela R, Buscanan KA, Chamorro R, Barrera C, Sandoval J, Puigrredon C, Parraguez G, Orellana P, Gonzalez V, Valenzuela A. Modification of docosahexaenoic acid composition of milk from nursing women who received alpha linolenic acid from chia oil during gestation and nursing. Nutrients 2015; 7: 6405-6424
• 49 Nieman DC, Gillitt N, Jin F, Henson DA, Kennerly K, Shanely RA, Ore B, Su M, Schwartz S. Chia seed supplementation and disease risk factors in overweight women: a metabolomics investigation. J Altern Complement Med 2012; 18: 700-708
• 50 Garcia Jimenez S, Pastor Vargas C, de las Heras M, Sanz Maroto A, Vivanco F, Sastre J. Allergen characterization of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica), a new allergenic food. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2015; 25: 55-56
• 51 European Food and Safety Authority. Opinion of the scientific panel on dietetic products, nutrition and allergies on a request from the commission related to the safety of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed and ground whole chia seed as a novel food ingredient intended for use in bread. EFSA J 2005; 278: 1-12
• 52 Armstrong D. Opinion on an application under the novel foods regulation for chia (Salvia hispanica L.). Advisory Committee for Novel Foods and Processes; 2004. Available at https://acnfp.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/mnt/drupal_data/sources/files/multimedia/pdfs/chiaappinvagrop.pdf Accessed March 7, 2018
• 53 Bresson JL. Opinion on the safety of ‘Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) and ground whole Chia seeds’ as a food ingredient. EFSA J 2009; 996: 1-26